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Wednesday, January 11, 2023

Leadership Perspectives

 Greetings,

The topic of adaptive leadership is a biblical perspective and reveals the humanity present in all individuals. Part of the Christian response to change is in possessing the skills necessary to help move people from a place of confusion to understanding. Reproducing leaders is an original mandate from God. According to commentary on Matthew 28: 18-20, not only does the church possess all authority but as well the mandate to make other disciples. The scriptures relate all followers remember this command, that Jesus has said, that by His authority all have received the authority to operate legally in the earth Matthew 28:18 (New International Version). 

Secondly, the topic of women and leadership has always been a topic demanding more discussions and understanding. Throughout the Bible, women were not mainly considered worthy subjects in the work of ministry. Their importance made evident when Jesus implored them in the work of his ministry. Frankly, God has never had a problem with women in leadership as exampled in Genesis1:27, "So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them" Genesis 1:27 (New International Version). Sadly, the negative stereotypes and culture-induced biases about women in leadership shed light on the church's failure as an authoritative model in the world as a Christian cultural indifference that only serves the purpose of disunity among all (Dreher, 2017).  One could assume from the above statement that the refusal to acknowledge the culture as a factor is problematic not only to the leader but also in developing relationships that are needed to advance the gospel message.

Great Possibilities,

Sylvia Joyner





 

References

Dreher, R. (2017).  The Benedict Option. [Liberty University Online Bookshelf].

https://libertyonline.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780735213319/

New Living Translation. (2011). New Living Bible Online.

 

https://www.biblegateway.com

 

Christian Ethics and Leadership

 

Christian Ethics and Leadership: Constructing A Biblical Ethic for the Christian Leader

Sylvia Joyner

School of Divinity, Liberty University

 

 

 

 

 

 

Author Note

                                                      Sylvia Joyner

I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sylvia Joyner

Email: sjoyner1@liberty.edu


 

Abstract

God’s original plan for Christian leadership is further impetus for the Christian educator, reflected in Psalms 51:10 the standard for behaving according to God's instructions, "Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a loyal spirit within me" Psalms 51:10 (New Living Translation).  If Christian educators want to make a change in the way they represent God and those they are leading, remember they are "God's rescuers" and "God's tutors" given the responsibility to teach and bring back people to God's principles (Temple, 2018). The Christian leader is challenged with other ethical methods which do not support a God’s standard fueling the need for Christian leaders need of a biblical construct for effective decision making, which provides a theological foundation in development of the leader's personal integrity, and it is God's original plan for moral truth. A biblical perspective stresses that service is the core of the Old and New Testaments and asks the question, how are leaders serving those they are leading? (Temple, 2018).

Keywords: ethical methods, Christian leaders, Christian educators, Biblical, personal integrity, moral truth, leadership


 Christian Ethics and Leadership: Constructing A Biblical Ethic for the Christian Leader

Christian ethics is concerned with how an individual should lead his or her life and an essential aspect of biblical aspirations in answering how Christian leadership should conduct their attitudes, motives, relationships, and decision making (Grudem, 2018). God's original plan for Christian leadership is further impetus for the Christian educator, reflected in Psalms 51:10 the standard for behaving according to God's instructions, "Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a loyal spirit within me" Psalms 51:10 (New Living Translation).  If Christian educators want to make a change in the way they represent God and those they are leading, remember they are "God's rescuers" and "God's tutors" given the responsibility to teach and bring back people to God's principles (Temple, 2018).

Christian leaders are not exempt from experiencing ethical situations, and part of the challenge is utilizing a standard and powerful method that supports God's plan. While ethical decision-making constructs through other perspectives other than the bible, four ethical paradigms, in particular, addressed and noted as the ethics of justice, critique, care, and the profession (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016, p. 23). Although effective in their approach, each of the above ethical paradigms limits the Christian leader's decision-making without the undergirding of the biblical perspective. A biblical perspective stresses that service is the core of the Old and New Testaments and asks the question, how are leaders serving those they are leading? (Temple, 2018).  Christian leaders need a biblical construct for effective decision making, which provides a theological foundation for the development of the leader's integrity, which is God's original plan for moral truth.

 

Ethical Reasoning and the Christian Leader

The Christian Leader's Decision-Making

The essential nature of the Christian leader's spiritual practice (inward) and (outward) spiritual practice, which is essential to the leader's ability to express God's identity in decision-making (Dunham, 2019). Advancing the thought expands the idea that one's identity as a Christian leader should inform and influence the Bible's moral truth rather than the moral truth of other perspectives. Without a biblical reference, Christian leaders are subject to unnecessary pitfalls and judgments which have consequences for their followers, respectively (Dunham, 2019). According to Kramer (2013), leader effectiveness as ethical guides begins with valuing virtue above selfish interests, which characterizes the importance of a leader's deeds matching their actions (Kramer, 2013). Leaders need to develop awareness because whatever decision a leader makes is influenced consciously by his or her inner values (Brandon & Gross, 2014).

An aspect of the reasoning why it is more difficult for leaders to be ethical than it is to understand how to be an ethical leader relies on an awareness of the everyday temptations and moral pitfalls of leadership, and how to avoid them (Ciulla, 2018). The author discusses those moral areas challenged by leaders as relationships and followers, responsibility and trust, self-interest, self-control, ego, and success, compassion, care, and saints (Ciulla, 2018, pp. 371-381). Each of these areas has the potential to create ethical challenges for the leader because leaders are not perfect, and when called into leadership positions, their followers expect moral excellence.

The Barna Research Group (2009) conducted an intensive interview of thirty top leaders from various leadership sectors. Discovered was that great leaders practice the art of power and use it to foster communication and respect for those they are leading. Furthermore, revealing that power is about the correct use of authority and when used according to the biblical standard, can provide consciousness of moral direction, providing people with a moral framework for their choices and activities (Barna Group, 2009).

Six Dimensions of Character Development

Character Development requires more than a great personality. As Cloud (2009) stresses, many leaders excel in the personality department but have failed miserably as men and women of character (Cloud (2009). The Bible is a leader's guide in understanding that the gift of leadership is not one's own, but from God (Patterson, 2017). One perspective is that change is not realized in what we see (the performance) but is influenced by how we live (Smith, 2009). 

Cloud (2009) discusses the importance of six dimensions that form the foundation of integrity for the Christian leader. Importance structures the leader's character by establishing trust, oriented toward truth, getting results, embracing the negative, oriented toward increase, and oriented toward transcendence (Cloud, 2009, Introduction section).  When working together, each of the dimensions strengthens the character and integrity of the leader's task and relationships encountered. Relevant scriptures pinpoint the importance of seeing one's self as whole verses fractured in Ephesians 4:13 "This will continue until we all come to such unity in our faith and knowledge of God's Son that we will be mature in the Lord, measuring up to the full and complete standard of Christ" Ephesians 4:13 (New Living Translation). 

What Distinctions Define the Christian Leader’s Decision Making?

Above was discussed the Christian leader's decision making? It is also essential to include what parameters are needed when Christian leaders make decisions, especially in light of those decisions affecting other individuals. For example, the case studies depicting leaders in educational settings faced dilemmas in solving moral and spiritual predicaments affecting their schools and reaching into the community (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). In a collaborative effort, Christian leaders in educational systems are encouraged to use proven methods of combined multiple paradigms noted as the ethics of justice, critique, care, and the profession (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016, p. 23) which provide for the Christian educator extended support and flexibility. The four ethical paradigms discussed in greater detail in section on the moral quest.

In contrast, a distinction must be made in that being a Christian leader does not necessarily make a leader ethical any more than putting lipstick on pigs makes them feel pretty. A Christian leader's decision making cannot rely on one's own rules and regulations or even from personal experience. The original plan of establishing the biblical priority of integrity for the Christian leader is to gain certain aspects of God's perspective and the leader's proper response.

The Genesis account reflected the intended outcome of leadership when God entrusted humanity with certain responsibilities. However, there are specific categories of results that cannot be measured. For example, living a Christian life is more than living by prescribed rules. In Leviticus 19:2, God instructs the nation of Israel, "Be holy, because I the Lord your God, am holy" (p. 138). Similarly, In Philippians 2:5, Paul inspires the Philippians, "Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus" (p. 138). Overall, Christian leaders aspire to attain the character that God's image has created in each person (Walton, 2001, p. 138).

However, ethical reasoning for the Christian educator has to reach beyond personal beliefs and take into consideration the essence of spiritual leadership, which moves people toward God's agenda (Temple, 2018). Often one can get stuck in the problem presented and miss the opportunity to resolve the problem with integrity amid the grand scheme of things.

Moreover, a Christian leader's decision making is different from other leaders because reflected are a different set of principles, and motivations, and overwhelmingly, the Christian leader's decision making inspired by God's Word (Temple, 2018). Overwhelmingly underlying reasons, some leaders practice unethical philosophies, principles, and tactics to achieve what they desire (Caro, 1991). Thoughts about character and ethical practices, too often relied upon, are traditional wisdom instead of Godly wisdom, often stemming from selfish aspirations, instead of what best reflects God's character and ethical practices (Temple, 2018).

Who Is the Christian Leader?

Spiritual Leadership Defined

Agreeably the Christian leader is an educator responsible for teaching and leading, which is the objective of spiritual leadership to move people toward God's agenda (Temple, 2018). Leaders are designated as "servants of the Lord" (p. 300) and have the responsibility to follow a "divine agenda" (p. 300).  The apostle Paul's example marks them as a noticeably specified mission (1 Corinthians 1:17), regular evaluation of the fundamental values and message (1 Corinthians 11:23-26), and the ability to communicate the message to a diverse audience (1 Corinthians 9:19-23).  Essentially, solidifying the driving force in how leaders instruct and teach others in the body of Christ (Howell, 2003, pp. 300-301).

Malphurs (2003) conveys Christian leaders as reliable and steady servants informing and instructing people in diverse religious settings as directed by God. The process is where leaders experience growth with their followers (Malphurs, 2003, p. 8). He asks the question, "what makes a Christian leader" (p. 8) echoing the answer comes back that leaders grow when they purposely follow after God (Malphurs, 2003).  Helpful to the topic, is that God in 1 Timothy 3 has laid out the groundwork by which leadership purposed. The author uses this foundation to inform the reader that leaders instruct others, but they also are required to model Christlikeness. In 1 Corinthians 11:1, Paul writes to the Christian church at Corinth, "Follow my example, as I follow the example of Christ" (Malphurs, 2003, p. 10). 

The same standard for the leader's purpose today is the same as was given to leaders in the early church. Timothy in (2 Timothy 2:15; 3:14-17) is instructed by the apostle Paul to study the word of God, which is the undergirding to instruct, rebuke, correct and train in righteousness, leading to a leader's ability to properly leading the church (Howell, 2003, p. 2).  Ezekiel provides the theology of leadership from older traditions; human leaders are "expected and encouraged" to lead from a God-centered perspective (Laniak, 2006, pp. 160-161). Garnered from a spiritual application, the following discussion notes the importance of "six musts" for the Christian leader, which fosters the Christian leader's integrity and character when grappling with ethical dilemmas (Temple, 2018).

Six Musts of Integrity for the Christian Leader

Caro's (1991) biography of President Lyndon B. Johnson's political ambition and aspirations is narrated through several themes, each exposing the underlying greed and power Johnson used to win and not be defeated. President Lyndon B. Johnson was considered a great leader, and one may cringe at the fact that he was not known for integrity as a leader. The ultimate quest as Christian leaders is integrity as aspired by God.

In contrast, the six musts of integrity play a crucial role in the teacher-learner relationship for greater effectiveness in training and equipping in education, especially from the aspect of a Christian worldview and Christian leadership opportunities.  The six musts establish God as the leader's objective (I John 2:10, Romans 12:1-2), fosters a fervent prayer warrior (James 4:17.)  Additionally, vital study and practice of God's Word (2 Timothy 2:15, 3:16), necessary to display an urgency for the Word of God, because every aspect of building people is essential and takes advantage of accessing mentoring moments (Temple, 2018).

Who is the Ethical Leader?

Fundamental Elements

            Integrity described as "the ability to meet the demands of reality" (Cloud, 2009, Introduction section). Overall, there are fundamental elements necessary to be an ethical leader, and they consist of three essentials integrity, which comprises the elements of character, integrity, and reality. The three essentials of integrity do not equate to performance but rather to morals and ethics (Cloud, 2009, Introduction section). Virtually character, integrity, and reality bridge the leader's perspective of personal and spiritual growth. Consideration of character development is spoken of by the Apostle Paul when he writes, "We also rejoice in our sufferings, because we know that suffering produces perseverance, character, and character, hope" Romans 5:3-4 (New International Version). A failure to communicate and carry out Matthew 28:19 is at the very heart of God's plan for communicating the Gospel to everyone, however that cannot occur if his ambassadors choose to remain in their own identities rather than God's identity.

           God's perfection is the standard for moral character and the motivation for religious practice. The whole moral code follows from his holiness. The people of Israel instructed by God, "For I am the LORD your God; consecrate yourselves, therefore, and be holy, for I am holy. You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming thing that crawls upon the earth. For I am the LORD who brought you up out of Egypt's land, to be your God; you shall, therefore, be holy, for I am holy" (Leviticus 11:44-45). The same thought expressed in Leviticus 19:2 and Matthew 5:48 displaying the flawlessness of God, and similar quality expected of persons set apart unto him (Erickson, 2013, p. 257).

Moral Integrity of Ethical Leaders

One may ask, what is the connection, if any, between ethics and the moral life? The moral life of a leader summed up in how one behaves in the context of "oughtness and obligation" (Hollinger, 2002, p. 12). Leader integrity is a reflection of inward motivation, and their actions inform the character of the leader. Jesus put it this way: "For it is from within, from the human heart, that evil intentions come: fornication, theft, murder, adultery, avarice, wickedness, deceit, licentiousness, envy, slander, pride, folly. All these evil things come from within, and they defile a person" (Mark 7:21– 23). The moral life summed up as a vital connection to the inward dimension of Christian experience. Likewise, the inward dimension must always demonstrate itself in the external dimension, including both word and deed (Hollinger, 2002, p. 11). Moreover, stressed is the reality that "it is not always easy to separate professional from personal ethical codes" (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016, p. 39).

The biblical perspective is that the Bible is the Christian leader's standard by which all other things must submit their authority. Proverbs 8:12 says, "I, wisdom, dwell together with prudence; I possess knowledge and discretion" Proverbs 8: 12 (New International Version). Moreover, according to 1 Corinthians 3: 18 admonishes one, "Do not deceive yourselves. If any of you think you are wise by the standards of this age, you should become "fools" so that you may become wise" 1 Corinthians 3:18 (New International Version).

Biblical Models of Servant Leadership

Biblical Leadership

Biblical ethics begins with biblical guidance. Mark 10: 44 stresses that supreme leadership begins with the concept that one must be willing to be a servant first. Further explanation reveals that a servant leader is selfless, not selfish, and maintains a power balance while leading (Temple, 2018). Spiritual leadership is foundational for effective Christian leadership and undergirds the leader's ability to operate in a continuum pattern serving as the checks and balances of ethical decision making. Additionally, "spiritual leadership is not an occupation, it is a calling" and supported in the Bible," God is not necessarily looking for leaders, at least not in a sense we might think. He is looking for servants" (Isaiah. 59:16; Ezekiel. 22:30) (Blackaby & Blackaby, 2011, p. 7). One of the central metaphors through which Biblical leadership conceptualized is shepherding (Laniak, 2006). 

Biblical perspective stresses that service is the core of the Old and New Testaments and asks how leaders are serving those they are leading? (Temple, 2018). Three principles described in the narrative of Matthew 4 when the enemy tempted Jesus and inherent in the church leadership today—described as pleasure (seekers of selfish desires and motives), power (seekers of power positions rather than leading in humble submission to God), and parade (seekers of splendor and grandeur) (Temple, 2018). The three principles reveal to leaders that this is not the biblical model of servant leadership or how Jesus modeled servant leadership. 

One overarching question Grudem (2018) asks is, "Why should Christian leaders study ethics?" (Grudem, 2018, p. 30). Noted also that theology informs how an individual should think while ethics tell individuals how they should live (Grudem, 2018). Several reasons are given and supported by scripture in Old and New Testament examples and the ministry of Apostle Paul.  

Old Testament

The Old Testament acknowledged as Christian scripture depicted as the "theocratic foundation of ethics" (p. 400) and as the will of God, Holy, faithful, right, and God as creator and redeemer of humanity. Exampled through the covenant relationship between God and Israel displayed is the moral relationship (Elwell, 2001, p. 400). Further understanding of God's perspective on ethics and his covenant with the nation of Israel depicted as the "theme of the covenant" (Grenz, 2000, p. 98). Throughout the scriptures, exampled for leaders is God in the role of righteous, protective, and faithful chief shepherd, as seen in the Old Testament through His Prophets (Laniak, 2006). God also has a divine proclivity for human leadership, signifying "calling stewardship and accountability" (Laniak, 2006, p. 22). They are exampled by the prophet Jeremiah as a model of a righteous leader. Equally, today leaders are accountable to Yahweh, and the people entrusted in their care (Wessels, 2015, pp. 874-877). 

New Testament

An enduring ethical tradition marked by John the Baptist's demand for "purity, righteousness, honesty, and social concern" evidenced in the narrative account of Luke 3:10-14 (Elwell, 2001, p. 401). Further exposition is seen in Luke's unveiling of the scriptures in Acts revealing the earliest moral life of people living as transformed people (Elwell, 2001). New Testament examples provide the importance of living in obedience to God. In particular, narrated in Matt. 28:19–20 and John 14:15 speaks on the importance of obeying the commandments Jesus taught his followers. Grudem (2018) stresses that obeying Jesus's commandments entails three components of a Christian's life, an individual must recognize, and understand how these principles are applicable in living as Christ-like vessels.

Examples from Apostle Paul 

The overarching theme of the New Testament is ethical teaching. Explicitly, Paul's ethical theme espouses that the law cannot suffice for human weakness that it is through the image of Jesus spoken of in Acts 16:7. The effect of this identification is the character of Christ in every person lived out as the Fruit of the Spirit in those submitted to the will of God (Romans 5:5; 8:9-14, Galatians 5:22-23) (Elwell, 2001, pp. 401-402).

Pauline theology reveals in Acts 26:20 that Paul is not an "antinomian" but stresses that an individual of faith cannot circumvent God's moral standards (Bock, 2012, p. 264). Additionally, the book of Acts reveals the objective of Paul's ministry's effectiveness was grounded in ethical behavior fueled by his obedience to God (Tannehill, 2012). The Apostle Paul's focus is through the transforming power of the Gospel, and all believers would become "mature in Christ" Colossians1:28 (New Revised Standard Version). 

Additional analysis, 2 Corinthians 3:18, says, "So all of us who have had that veil removed can see and reflect the glory of the Lord. And the Lord, who is the Spirit, makes us more and more like him as we are changed into his glorious image" 2 Corinthians 3:18 (New Living Translation). Similarly, Paul reminds believers in Ephesians 4:23-24 "to allow the Spirit to renew their thoughts and attitudes, putting on the new nature, created to be like God, truly righteous and holy" Ephesians 4:23-24 (New Living Translation).  

Jesus Model of Servant Leadership

Every leader needs a role model. That role model for Christian leadership is Jesus, the Master Teacher (Estep, Anthony, & Allison 2008). The biblical/theological importance of identification that "Jesus is the visible image of the invisible God" (Sunberg, & Mitchell, 2015, p. 15) modeling leadership. Measurably, Jesus the Master Teacher affirms through this prayer to his Father: revealed in John 17:3 "This is eternal life: That they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent" (Estep et al., 2008, p. 142). 

Leadership is about submission first to God and then to each other following Jesus' exemplar of "mutual submission and "servant leadership" (p. 28) for the New Testament" (p. 28) (Padgett, 2011, p. 28).  Through the Biblical model of leadership, 1 Peter 5:5 discloses that the character of servants is serving in humility, not hostility, which characterizes the image of God in the lives of his people (Padgett, 2011). Authority of the Bible is the supreme expression of God's will for defining what one believes and how one is to live (Erickson, 2013, p. 212). 

In summation, the commitment of leadership must begin with this statement, "Leading" the people of this planet to the person of Jesus Christ is a call to all who believe" (Patterson, 2016, p. 81). Jesus is the role model demonstrated through service and is reflective of a leadership model devoid of selfish motivations.

The Moral Quest: Foundations of Christian Ethics

Christian Ethics verses Secular Ethics

Christian ethics has three principal sources: the written word of Scripture, the prayer and practice of the church, and the distilled wisdom and experience. The authority that shapes the identity of Christianity is the Bible, and an understanding of Christian ethics with an understanding of the nature and content of the Scriptures and their role in the discipline (Wells & Quash, 2017). The Bible reflects Christian ethics in three parts detailing God's people in the Old Testament, God in Person in the four gospels, and Jesus as the model in the rest of the New Testament (Wells & Quash, 2017). 

Approaching the subject of a moral mission for Christian ethics, Grenz (2000) outlines the basics of ethics, with specific emphasis on the role and methods of Christian ethics, and examines the ethical approaches through the examples presented in the Old Testament, the Gospels, and Paul. Furthermore, Christian ethics inform the role and methods, which is an essential component for consideration in constructing a biblical ethic for Christian leadership. Paul declares, it is favorable "to aspire to leadership if its underlying intent is to impact people for the glory of God" (p. 4) (1 Timothy 3:1; cf. 1:17; 6: 16) (Howell, 2003, pp. 3-4). Where do

moral decisions and personal character fit within the Christian life? (Hollinger, 2002, p. 11). Stressing the point again, the rationale for demonstrating Christian ethics rather than secular ethics derived from the summation that the Christian experience is about moral decision making and personal character, representing the individual's "internal and external" or "word and deed" expression of spirituality (Hollinger, 2002, p. 11).

Fundamentally, Christian ethics undergirds the Christian basis of either identifying with biblical morals or with human morals. The subject further stresses that societal issues have the potential to influence Christian morality and Christian character. The further impetus of the influence of societal issues is that the Christian leader builds on the character and moral teachings of Jesus Christ (Hollinger, 2002), not societal issues. Christian ethics and Christian faith are closely linked through Christianity's teleological form and adhering to a life in Christ (Schel, 2013, pp. 150-165).

Moreover, Christian ethics is more than a set of rules the Christina leader needs; instead, it is at the heart of the Christian leader's understanding of integrity, character, and moral truth. However, as Sullivan (2009) points out, a set of ethical guidelines is not enough for moral perimeters. Several problems arise when there is a set of expectations among leaders in various communities when expected to abide by ethical guidelines. Many of these expected guidelines are not adequately rooted in rules or codes of ethics addressing moral issues, and moral principles by which ethical, Christian leaders should conduct themselves (Sullivan, 2009). Below is a discussion pinpointing theoretical considerations common to the perspectives of secular ethics.

            Ethics, in general, is viewed as a "moral philosophy" (p. 24), and there are three major dimensions to consider in contrast to why a Biblical construct is necessary to Christian leaders. The three major dimensions of "moral philosophy" are known as "empirical, normative and analytical" ethical paradigms (Grenz, 2000, pp. 24-25) each provides answers to ethical questions posed by Christians and non-Christians equally. 

Other Theoretical Perspectives of Ethical Paradigms

Because Christian leaders serve in diverse environments such as secular educational settings, other options for solving ethical dilemmas are usually recommended by theorists that do not always undergird a biblical foundation.  Further advancing the discussion are multiple methods, educators can use when addressing various ethical dilemmas. The case studies analyzed in class presented dilemmas addressing moral and spiritual predicaments in existing educational systems and the community (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).

For example, Case Study 3.4, entitled The School of Hard Knocks. The essence of the Case Study focuses on a school bully and a security guard. It contrasts the voices of young children against the wishes of a school superintendent. In this case, two communities are affected— the students in the school and the district administration. The two opposing paradoxes to consider are the voices of the student community matter, or does the superintendent have the last word? (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016, p. 49).  The community's objective is the forming relationships that help the whole community grow (Lowe & Lowe, 2018). The spiritual perspective of the case study, each community, student versus district operating as independent, stand-alone representatives (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016) and separation is not the objective of spiritual leadership.

Four ethical paradigms are the standard by which educators in schools are encouraged to use when faced with challenging situations noted as the ethics of justice, critique, care, and the profession and serve as a secular framework for exploring and solving ethical dilemmas (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016, pp. 19, 23).

In consideration of the ethic of the professional paradigm, considers questions informed by the other ethical paradigms related to justice, critique, and care and moves the decision making in asking about expectations from fellow professionals, community and the best interests of the students and their needs (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).  Moreover, stressed is the reality that "it is not always easy to separate professional from personal ethical codes" (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016, p. 39).

Peering through a biblical viewpoint solving moral issues is the aim of Christian leadership and community. God has designed the perfect ecosystem (community) for spiritual growth, maintaining spiritual connectedness, and reciprocal interactions (Lowe & Lowe, 2018). Character formation is also essential to spiritual formation in the Christian community.

However, highlighting the objective of this discussion is that Christian leaders need a biblical construct for effective decision making, which provides a theological foundation in the development of the leader's character and integrity, and it is God's original plan for moral truth. This writer does not object to using one or more of the four ethical paradigms utilized in solving problems educators face, adding suggestions to consider undergirding that choice with a biblical standard equally.

Interestedly, the ethical choice a leader makes hinges on this question, how does one's view of God affect one's understanding of God? (Erickson, 2013). Overall, Christian ethics informs and reinforces the Biblical standard, which is above all other perceived theories, and philosophical thinking, the Christian leader, has to consider when making moral decisions (Jones, 2013). Overall, each ethical model's importance discussed in light of constructing a biblical undergirding for Christian leaders' religious obligation as the leader's first line of moral defense.

Conclusion

            Christian leaders are Christian educators serving in a variety of educational settings. The challenges experienced involve moral issues. A biblical perspective stresses that service is the core of the Old and New Testaments and asks the question, how are leaders serving those they are leading? (Temple, 2018). Who is the Christian leader? Three essentials required of being a leader of integrity noted as character, integrity, and reality strengthening the personal and spiritual growth of the leader (Cloud, 2009, Introduction Section). 

            Character is described as “what one does when no one is looking” (p. 146) and developed over time (Pettit, 2008, p. 146). The Christian leader is a servant leader commissioned to lead from the examples of Jesus. Necessity mandates a biblical construct for effective decision making, which provides a theological foundation in the development of the leader's integrity, and it is God's original plan for moral truth.

            The ability to be ethical Christian leaders is at the core of Christian leaders carrying out God's will and identifying with God. Christian leadership's objective is to form relationships in a unified shared purpose of love and obedience to the teachings of Jesus (John 15:10) (Patterson, 2017). 

 

 

 

 

 

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Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Educational Theory Essay



Educational Theory 

Curriculum theory is important to the educational process.  In an effort for educators to effectively understand the curriculum process requires being knowledgeable in its practical applications.  Green and Gredler (2002) perspective, although many educators have not fully grasped its potential, curriculum theory is a vital resource in developing curricular theory and applying to practical school based issues.  Educators informed about the curriculum process make better decision makers and leaders in effective school management and exemplify excellence in the quality of education (pp. 53-65).  Educators view learning through a series of educational theories specific to student and classroom setting.   Curriculum theory is valuable to schools as they process and progress in transferring theories to applicable aims, goals, and objectives.
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), curriculum theory as attributed by Beauchamp, “involves decisions about the use of a curriculum, the development of curriculum, curriculum design, and curriculum evaluation” (p.19). Curriculum theory and various philosophies (discussed in activities 1 and 2) have also influenced educational theories: behaviorism, constructivism, humanism, perennialism, essentialism, and existenlism, progressivism and recontructionism and range in thought from traditional and conservative to contemporary and liberal (p. 57).  
Constructivism Educational Theory

Learning pointed out by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) can be analyzed through three major theories, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology (humanism) (p. 129). The educational theory I have identified that is most useful to my work place is constructivism.   Three cognitive theorists associated with constructivism are Montessori (1870-1952), Piaget (1896-1980), and Vygotsky (early twentieth century) (pp. 140-141).  Montessori’s theory mostly focused on structured play, instituting emphasis of visual and auditory activities, and that children learn at different rates.  Piaget’s work focused on cognitive stages of a child’s development in four stages of learning as sequential and progressive mental operations, moving from hierarchical to more complex operations, known as assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Vygotsky’s theories centered on theory of language and cultural transmission as learner’s are in process of learning, as well as learning mechanics in human development (pp.140-141). 
Cognitive learning theory is the second of three expanding theories during the 1950’s due to the influence of Piaget, and Vygotsky (p. 145).  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) say the educational theory constructivism is categorized by principles centered on the learner.  Learner is essential, active partner in creating meaning or knowledge.  Important still to student knowledge is the ability to construct their “world knowledge into their cognitive processes and perceptions of context, past and present” (p.129).  Constructivism is described as ‘nature of knowledge and nature of learning” (p. 129).  Learners are encouraged to be an active participant in the act of learning rather than passive.  Constructivism is based on the philosophical base progressivism.  Progressivism focuses on “how to think, not what to think” (p. 46).   Dewey and other progressivists, relate, the curriculum intent is interdisciplinary and teacher’s role is to guide students in problem-solving and scientific projects (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 46). 
Although no single educational theory is used by educators to affect student learning, most schools use one prominent educational theory and utilize other educational theories to help achieve overall student success in their academic development (p.).    According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) cite three reasons why a majority of educators, curriculum specialist, learning theorists, are cognitive-oriented: the cognitive approach comprises a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning, the theory is founded in the tradition of subject matter, and educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and understand them (pp. 136-137).
The constructivism educational theory is most useful in my work setting because educators and school personnel have the flexibility to create a curriculum geared toward learner participation.  In addition, because learning is a cognitive process, and emphasizes a learner’s cognitive domain, it can be reasoned that many educators relate learning with cognitive developmental theory (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 136-137).  Another important consideration of constructivism given by Vygotsky (1998) is a student’s need for social interaction.  Because a learner is a social learner, social interaction is essential for knowledge construction, but also leaves room for students to authenticate what they know through group learning, increases discussions, experimentation, enthusiasm, and participation (as cited in  Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 144).

Aims of Constructivism Theory

The aims of constructivism learning theory are a curriculum focused on learner as an active participant, knowledge of learner is designed to build upon past and present knowledge, develop learners cognitive thinking processes through critical thinking and social interactions (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).   In other words, learner assimilates new knowledge and old knowledge. Cooperstein and Weidinger (2004) emphasize learning aims of the constructivism theory are dependent on cognitive thinking, not just physical activity or behavior.  Constructivism learning is inductive.  More importantly, students think about and process the activity, not merely memorize an action, necessary for learning to take place (para. 5).  Dewey expresses this thought, problem solving and activities a learner participates in school also develop intelligence and social growth and those same skills can be transmitted to resolving social problems students may encounter everyday (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131). 
Goals of Constructivism Theory

Goals serve the purpose of unifying and developing specific outcomes of learning. The goals of constructivism theory consist of students actively participate in activities to develop skills such as problem solving and acquiring concepts.  Educators develop lessons focused on development of questions, analyzing and synthesizing information, in an effort to solve problems and to think critically (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 56-57).  In addition, Vygotsky (1930/1996, 1931/1997) cites these specific complex skills as the goal of cognitive growth. They are stated as psychological or cognitive functions: categorical perception, conceptual thinking (verbal and mathematical), logical memory, and voluntary (self-regulated) attention (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 56-57).  
Similarly, goals resulting from Piagetian (1967-1972) thought on the development of logical reasoning resulting from learner’s interactions in manipulation of objects and recognition of conflict between his perceptions and the data.  Based on Piaget’s conclusions focus of reaching goals is development of logical thinking and classroom focus is spontaneous, student led experimentation (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 54-56).  According to Dewey, subject matter cannot be constructed in a “value hierarchy” study of any content can promote a learners development and experiences through a variety of  learning strategies (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 87). 
Objectives of Constructivism Theory

The purpose of objectives in the development of the curriculum is essential for maximizing and focusing stated outcomes in student learning.  Objectives built on constructivism theory consist of curriculum focusing on learner developing critical thinking skills, learner identifying possible solutions in resolving problems; learner encouraged to construct past and present knowledge (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129). Objectives developed through a constructivism theory are stated behavioral techniques as observable actions such as asking questions, demonstrating knowledge through project-based learning (Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 141).
Critique for Implementing Diverse Learning Strategies

   Learning pointed out by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) can be analyzed through three major theories, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology (humanism).  The phenomenology aspect of learning focuses on learner needs (p. 129).  Accomplished through humanism, addresses the relationship between student and teacher.  One weakness of humanism is that it does not address student’s intellectual development, as does the cognitive approach (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 48). 
Because constructivist theory methods are flexible in nature, teachers can implement diverse learning strategies around students’ needs. Classroom practices on constructivism methods as referred by Green and Gredler (2002), perceived as difficult and “not a unified perspective, especially in different theoretical views and diverse classroom” settings (pp. 63-64).  Further perspective is given on how to implement constructivist theories in a special education classroom and across many subject areas.  They suggest in order to remedy this challenge, for special learner needs, learning strategies be developed with an emphasis on flexible grouping, student collaboration, manipulative teacher modeling followed by student practice and gradual independence can provide a framework for giving special needs student developmental control (pp. 63-64).  Despite varied criticisms, constructivist’s educators share these basic beliefs. 
Mentioned previously, a curriculum developed on constructivism theories, learning focused on student’s cognitive developmental stages, and multiple forms of intelligence, critical thinking, and creativity (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).   Based on Vygotsky’s theories implementation of diverse learning strategies for complex cognitive skills, consist of development of metacognition strategies reflective of critical thinking skills that students can transfer to many curriculum areas and content materials (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131). 
Learning is reflective of varied types of learner’s experiences and reflective of diverse multiple intelligences.  Constructivism is concerned with how individuals learn, considerate of individual actively engaged in the process of learning (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).  Mentioned earlier, Piaget and others cite learning is accomplished in developmental stages and certain maturity needs to be in place in order for learning to take place.  Gardner, an advocate of multiple intelligences, cites “there are different mental operations associated with intelligence and …many different types of intelligence” (pp. 125-126).  He further suggest learning strategies to encompass multiple intelligences such as varied activities in the form of mastery dance, playing baseball, as a way to encourage all types of intelligences and all types of learning (p.126). 
Constructivist theory also encompasses problem-solving. Montessori (1870-1952) recaps “children develop at different rates” (pp.140-141).  Students need a definite and concise way in solving everyday problems. Previously mentioned by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), learner’s construct their own meaning. New learning builds on former knowledge and learning is enhanced by social interactions and meaningful learning through authentic tasks (p.131).  How to accurately implement learning strategies shared by Dewey on problem-solving and encouraging systemic interpretation everyday experiences through scientific reasoning are: awareness of difficulty, identify the problem, assemble and classify data and form hypothesis, accept or reject the tentative  hypothesis, and make conclusions and evaluate them (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131).  Opposing criticism speculates on the problem of effective problem-solving or critical thinking” (pp. 130-131) that it does not necessary lead to creativity (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009).  Others agree that creativity represents a quality of mixing humanism and cognitive components in learning (p. 134).  Three types of people as told by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) creative, intelligent, and wise in solving problems, just in different ways (p. 134).
Constructivism, a shift in the way educators think about learning.  A curriculum approach built on critical thinking skills to actively engage students in the process of learning.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) say again, the cognitive approach represents a logical method for organizing and interpreting learner cognitive thinking, rooted in a tradition of subject matter; many educators are already familiar with its concepts and methods (pp.136-137).  Although a constructivism theory is grounded in developing cognitive skills of students, it is time consuming but has many benefits that will benefit all students.  In a concise and well planned, structured, directed activities lead students to discover concepts and develop skills (Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 145). 
References
Cooperstein, S. E., & Kocevar-Weidinger, E. (2004).  Beyond active learning: a constructivist
approach to learning. Reference Services Review, 32(2), 141-148.  Retrieved from
Green, S. K., & Gredler, M. E. (2002). A review and analysis of constructivism for school-
based practice.  School Psychology Review, 31(1), 53.
Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and 
issues.   [Reader   version].   Retrieved  from  
            http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#