Analyzing Curriculum Foundations

Important to the discussion are four foundations of curriculum; philosophical, historical, psychological, and social impacting education in our past and present day educational system.  Each of the four major foundations has played a significant role in curriculum development, instructional practices and curriculum development.  I have chosen to write about the curriculum foundation, philosophical and contrast its importance to the other three foundations, historical, psychological, and social.  Philosophy as pointed out by John Goodlad is the initial point in curriculum decision making and a foundation for all subsequent decisions.  Philosophy, Goodlad continues is the means for determining the aims, resources, and ends of curriculum and important to every decision concerning teaching and learning (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  32). 

Philosophy gives an objective to our actions. Philosophy provides educators, in particular, curriculum decision makers, with a framework or frameworks for organizing schools and classrooms.  In addition, a curriculum based on philosophical viewpoints provides to curricular decision makers a way of determining the purpose of schools, subject matter to be taught, how students learn, acceptable content, teaching and learning processes, experiences and activities students can participate in.  Furthermore, a philosophical curriculum offers to schools direction in choosing textbooks to use, how to use them, homework assignments, student tests selection and use of tests (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).   Some of those decisions as stated by previous paragraph consist of curriculum decisions as told by L. Thomas Hopkins, are based on past and present decisions as exampled by pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32)

Again we are reminded, without a definitive unified philosophy, an educator can be unjustifiably swayed by outside pressures (p. 57).  For example, outside pressures in the form of making poor decisions based on a lack of knowledge about content, learning preferences, teaching and learning processes, and student experiences and activities.  In addition, a philosophical viewpoint is crucial to the curriculum process and its influence upon, goals, content, and organization. William Van Til speaks of education as “our philosophy of education determines our educational decisions” and “philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and a good society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 31-32).  Although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future (p. 32).

Within the framework of the philosophical foundation are four major philosophical perspectives important to the curriculum process: idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. These perspectives range from traditional and conservative to contemporary and liberal influencing educational theories: perennialism, and essentialism, progressive and recontructionism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 57).  Philosophies and their effectiveness can be judged by certain principles; through the actions they model (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 38).

In particular many of those actions modeled by a philosophical foundation serve an important purpose of unifying all foundations to meet the total needs of schools and students. 

Despite many changes in the curriculum during the time of the historical foundation, progressive influences (developed from pragmatic philosophy), essentialism, and perennialism thought were prominent during its evolution of curriculum decisions in schools.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) inform theorists Franklin Bobitt (1876-1956) Charters (1875-1952) were major behavioral scientific curriculum influencers.  Bobbitt advocated for a curriculum based on the principles of perennialism rooted in realism and idealism, implementation of knowledge outlined for each subject and the development of applicable activities (p. 89).  In addition, Charters made his mark to the curriculum advocating that curriculum decision makers based their decisions on concise principles in selecting materials that would lead to achievement of specific, measurable objectives.  Another important consideration is that Bobitt and Charles were major instrumental players utilizing philosophical principles impacting curriculum making principles, aims, objectives, needs, learning experiences, emphasized use of behavioral objectives, and initiators of what is now referred to as assessments Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  90).

Further philosophical importance to the historical foundation is shared by progressive theorists, William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) and Harold Ruggs (1886-1960) through the principles behaviorism and progressivism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 98-99).   Progressivist thought includes a curriculum of problem-solving, and scientific methods. Progressivism ideals also encouraged students “how to think, not what to think” (p. 46).  In contrast, because of an ever changing society, Dewey, according to progressivist thought believed students needed to solely focus on problem-solving and scientific methods and not on a “fixed body of knowledge” (p.46).  Imploring the philosophical ideas and concepts of behaviorism and progressivism, curriculum focus now shifted its emphasis on the student and teacher in planning curriculum and to pedagogy and instructional practices (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 98-99).   

Another important curriculum foundation is psychological foundation.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) relate curriculum choices focus on process, not products, personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores and changing environments (space and time) not predetermined environments. Psychological theories embody three modes of learning, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology or humanistic psychology.  Its foundational principles are founded in theories of twentieth century behaviorists, Thorndike, Skinner, and Bandura, and others. Attributed to cognitive learning theories are Vygotsky, and Piaget, and others and a humanistic approach to learning is attributed to theorists Maslow and Rodgers (pp. 140-141).  

The behaviorists, who embody traditional psychology, are grounded in the philosophical theories of nature of learning and ideas of Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, and Rousseau (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.108).  Their learning theories are important because philosophical ideas lay the groundwork in determining curriculum choices.  Moreover, cognitive and behavioral concepts underscore conditioning behavior, and changing the environment effect a determined response from the learner.  In addition, behaviorism principles of learning dominated much of the twentieth century psychology (p. 108).  

Philosophical influences are also a way to access products of the process of learning, Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) express philosophy helps curriculum workers develop and design school practices in unity with the philosophy of the school and community.  Because too often educators and administrators develop and implement behavioral objectives without taking into account a school’s overall philosophy.  As was stated earlier, philosophy directs and guides our actions, without a main philosophy; an educator is subject to many outside pressures (p.57). 

Important to schools the social climate of learners is a contributing factor to successful learning.  Their approach to curriculum and guidance in making decisions affecting learners has also been influenced by a philosophical foundation.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) share curriculum decisions and curricular decision makers need a social compass regarding student diversity, populations, and needs. Through a philosophical approach (pragmatism) social foundations of curriculum are grounded in the educational principles of reconstructionism and as asserted by Philip Phenix, the content of moral content contains five areas human rights, ethics, social relationships, economic life and political life. The above mentioned moral approaches represent a way of “organizing and combining history and English into an interdisciplinary area” of study (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 158).   

Reconstructionist philosophy is founded on socialist and utopian ideas during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (p. 51). Reconceptualists George Counts (1932) and Theodore Brameld (1950) are credited with helping to establish the ideas of philosophical principles.  Counts, stated, “schools become agents of social reform” and Brameld asserted, “students and teachers must improve society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 51). William Pinar another prominent reconceptualist, asserted that a reconcepualist curriculum focuses on “personal becoming, afflilative needs, sensitivity, and enjoyment” (p. 53).  Although, a philosophical base was influential, according to Counts, progressive education overlooked the problems of 1920’s and 1930’s, mainly, discrimination, poverty, and unemployment (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  51). 

Mentioned earlier, although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).  Selection of philosophical foundation of curriculum its application to the work place consist of educators and all curricular decision makers knowing the outcome of specific curriculum choices, classroom observations, lesson plans, teacher-student relationships.  Thomas Hopkins, relates an educators decisions are based in part on past and present choices as pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32). 

A Philosophical foundation of curriculum is essential, because its principles have united historical, social, and psychological foundations together as a unifying body  to meet  the social, emotional, and moral needs student, schools and teachers.  On any given day educators face many challenges to finding the best solution for challenges.  A philosophical approach gives direction in meeting those challenges and solutions. 

The above mentioned choices shared by Hopkins, are just some of the ways challenges are met in the classroom setting through a philosophical curriculum. Other examples include choices about, but not limited to knowing what prior knowledge is useful in the construction of curriculum, time in planning lessons, what will be included in the curriculum.  Based on a philosophical foundation educators can meet those challenges.  But the key to remember all curriculum choices need a unified direction and purpose in achieving set goals, and objectives. 

References

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues.  

[Reader   version].   Retrieved  from 

http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#

Defining Curriculum

Defining Curriculum Essay

Curriculum is a field of study ever changing to fit the needs of students, educators and school administrators.  Throughout its history to accurately define the field of curriculum is still a subject of great debate. Views vary widely since curriculum involves a wide assortment of people, students, and learning disciplines. To help define and narrow down a definition for curriculum, Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) through the definition of others define curriculum in terms of these five definitions: the first definition of curriculum, emphasizes a plan in reaching goals. This view is credited to Tyler and Taba, seen as a “linear view of curriculum.” this second definition takes into consideration student experiences. This definition is expressed by Dewey as a way of viewing non-academic subject matter designed in or outside of school as the curriculum and any student experiences (pp. 10-11).  

The third way of defining curriculum focuses on a system for dealing with people. This definition is considered less popular than the first two, and be directed or non-directed.  The fourth definition for curriculum is a field of study comprising its own foundations, and is concerned with subject matter historical, philosophical or social issues. This view has been popularized by William Reid, Schubert, and the Tanners. Lastly, curriculum can be defined in terms of subject matter (math, science, English, history), or content (how to organize and integrate information).  This last definition of curriculum is the most accepted among schools because it does allow for emphasis to be on subject matter dealing with facts and concepts (pp. 10-11).  Each of these five definitions will be further analyzed through the influence of six curriculum approaches.

Important considerations to further defining the word curriculum are also given to the many challenges presented, such as defining curriculum too narrowly may lead to, what Eisner calls the null curriculum, subject matter and experiences that are not taught as well as curriculum consisting of planned formal knowledge and unplanned informal knowledge are important to its definition (pp. 10-11).  Taking all of these definitions as a starting place will help to bridge the gap between past and present definitions and help future educators in understanding all of the dynamics of an effective curriculum. 

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) six curriculum approaches are Behavioral Approach, Managerial Approach, Systems Approach, Academic Approach, Reconceptualist Approach, and Humanistic Approach. Each one is important to our definition of the word curriculum.  In addition, these six approaches can be classified as “technical/scientific or nontechnical/nonscientific” models of education (pp. 2-10).  As Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) add each of these five definitions along with the six curriculum approaches forms the basis of a well-rounded curriculum centered on addressing student needs, teachers, administrators and all supporting staff.  In consideration, the curriculum success can also be affected by discrepancies upon the successful implementation of the curriculum and subsequent classroom instruction and overall student success (pp. 2-10).      

Beginning with the Behavioral approach associated and founded on the principles of Bobbitt, Charters, Tyler, and Taba.  This approach defines curriculum in terms of “logical, prescriptive, and technical and scientific methods and models.”  This model is also considered the oldest and most prominent of all the approaches.  Curriculum plan entails lessons that are focused on “learner’s needs” and takes into consideration goals and objectives focused on student behavior (pp. 2-3).  The second approach Managerial approach defines curriculum in consideration of the needs of the workers involved such as curriculum specialists, supervisors, and administrative staff.  Through this approach educators are able to plan and focus the curriculum to specific programs, schedules, space, resources, equipment, and personnel (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 2-5). 

The third curriculum approach is the Systems approach defines curriculum in terms of organizing people and policies with an end result of relating all parts to the whole.  George Beauchamp is credited with the first systems theory of curriculum.  He emphasized five key points in this educational approach: administration, counseling, curriculum, instruction, and evaluation. A curriculum plan using this approach stresses the use of organizational diagrams, flow charts, and committee structures including subjects, courses, unit plans, and lesson plans (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 5-7).  As schools experience changes in policy and student populations the curriculum also changes, many schools utilize the elements in the fourth approach, the Academic approach.  The Academic approach founded on the theories of John Dewey, Henry Morrison, and Boyd Bode. This approach to curriculum is based on centering curriculum that is non-traditional, such as historical knowledge, philosophical, social, and political. Schools adopting this approach are able to develop a student’s sense of self beyond subject matter and pedagogy (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 7-8). 

The fifth curriculum approach is the Humanistic approach, grounded in utilizing instructional strategies such as cooperative learning, independent learning, small-group learning, and social activities instead of competitive, teacher-dominated , large group learning. Schools that adopt this approach emphasize active student participation in in the context of learning (p. 9).   Our sixth approach is the Reconceptualist approach, highlighting that change is a focal point. Considered an extension of the humanistic approach, targets learning through political, economic, social, moral, and artistic endeavors Schools using this approach envision the curriculum as a means to help schools become an extension of the community and society, greatly benefiting the student’s sense of self and social power in and out of the classroom.    Associated with this sixth approach are the developmental theories of Pinar and past theorists such as George Counts, Harold Rugg, and Harold Benjamin (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 9-10).

Now that we have an idea about the definition of curriculum, how do curriculum and instruction work together successful? In consideration of these definitions and curriculum approaches to define curriculum, I define curriculum in my own terms consisting of what is taught, well-planned in subject matter (math, science, English, history) and consideration of student needs.  What is instruction?  Instruction is how the curriculum will be taught and consideration is given to diverse instructional strategies and student needs.  Furthermore, instruction and curriculum are interdependent on each other.  If the curriculum lacks diversity in its foundations, subject matter, lesson planning, creation of student experiences, instruction will lack in the choices teacher chooses to teach.  

This I would say is the distinguishing difference and similarity between curriculum and instruction. In addition, in defining curriculum, it should not be limited to the above subject matter (math, science, English, and history).  A well-developed curriculum affords us the opportunity to present to our students diversity in subject matter, presentation, lessons plans, and instructional strategies.  Curriculum and instruction are also dependent on the quality of teacher effectiveness.  Curriculum and creative instruction planned according to student needs can yield positive interactions, and outcomes in aiding the learner in their development of personal insight and social power.

For example, creation of effective curriculum with an emphasis on student development also should include but not limited to the creation of meaningful activities, positive teacher-student relationships provide positive classroom environments, mutual accommodations for all students, inclusion of all diverse learning and student populations and encourage family involvement at all levels of learning.  With such a great diversity in student population educators benefit by knowing what others are saying about the field of curriculum as well as how to apply to practical practices in the classroom. As I stated earlier these are some of the starting points to get all schools on the same level of helping all learners develop personal insight and social power. 

A student’s perception of who they are and how they function in a social context is an important point in understanding the curriculum. Experiences that help students increase their thinking and develop social relationships are important. These learning experiences help to foster a student’s self-esteem and increase the chances that learning will have a positive outcome. Social power or the lack of affects a student’s social power.  One of the ways is in the process of learning, students need effective ways to learn from each other and how to transfer what is learned (through instruction) to real-world applications. The Behaviorist approach advocates “learners as cognitive individuals functioning within a social context” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 3).  For example, we can begin with the instructional strategy of cooperative group learning.  Cooperative group learning gives students access to positive student interactions and reinforcement of social skills. These types of learning opportunities are invaluable and can be constructed to other learning that supports learning and social power. Cooperative group learning and instructional strategies involving direct interaction with the learner is rooted in the perspective of the Humanistic approach, with an emphasis on active student participation and building a student’s self-esteem which is an aspect of social power and conscious (p. 9).

Understanding why some students do well in school and others do not is a crucial issue.  The many reasons are as divisive as the defining of curriculum. Understanding these and other theories is the first step to understanding the dynamics of the many influences that may affect our student’s learning and the way we choose to teach those students. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) remind us the curriculum theory entails decisions about the use of the curriculum, the use and development of the curricular, design and evaluation.  Furthermore, curriculum theory involves a variety of disciplines represented as philosophical, historical, psychological, and social which is used to define the boundaries of knowledge with the context of the field of curriculum. In addition, the curriculum theory defines and explains the concepts, principles and relationships pertinent to all domains existing with the field of curriculum (pp. 13-19).

The knowledge of these principles within the theoretical framework is the first step in understanding many issues, and to support students learning by integrating structural equality that will benefit all of our students.  Some of those equalities as mentioned in the Systems approach are considerate of “curriculum issues” affecting the “entire school and school system” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 7).  Teachers have the responsibility to make sure each student is given the best opportunity in which to learn and instructional lessons are designed with student’s individual needs are taken into consideration. 

As educators, recognizing what our students need and how to teach the subject matter is one aspect of knowing the student and how best to use the curriculum.  Tobin (2008) expresses this thought, comprehending curriculum and knowledge of student skills, interests and backgrounds is required for success of all students (p.162).  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) add that the Academic curriculum approach considers the changing student population and calls for administrators and all participants to also include a curriculum diverse in subject matter such as “religion, psychotherapy, literary criticism, and linguistics” (p. 8).  In the process of learning, students need effective ways to master the material and learn from each other.  Based on the traditional theories of social organization the teacher’s role in the curriculum process is essential to its effectiveness (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 25).

Teachers understand the importance of providing meaningful connections that students can participate in.   As previously stated, the quality of instruction is dependent on teacher effectiveness.  The best curriculum is less than effective if we are not willing to approach it from a series of diverse applications, just as students are diverse in learning our approach to curriculum and instruction needs a diverse approach.  Using the knowledge of others to define the word curriculum, educators can envision curriculum to fit their needs and needs of students.

Changes in part due to society and the many forces that shape its foundation will continue to shape the definition of curriculum. As was mentioned earlier in this paper, relationships provide positive classroom environments, mutual accommodations for all students, inclusion of all diverse learning, student populations and encourage family involvement at all levels of learning. Furthermore, because relationships are an aspect of the curriculum definition, we are reminded of these words based on the humanistic approach, “education must focus both on the personal and interpersonal” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 9).  Diverse opinions in defining the word curriculum is ever-changing but the four foundations its theories, ideas, concepts are based on philosophical, historical, psychological, and social factors most theorists agree as a valid way to construct knowledge of curriculum (p.13). 

References

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues.  

[Reader   version].   Retrieved  from  

http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#

Tobin, R. (2008). Conundrums in the differentiated literacy classroom.  Reading

Improvement Journal, 45(4), 159-169. 

Token Economy Reinforcement Program

As defined by Zirpoli (2008) a token economy is described as a “symbolic reinforcement system” (p.321).  It works on the premise of reinforcing certain appropriate behaviors which students can exchange for objects or activities that have been designated as reinforcing. After the students have been introduced and use to how it operates, students then learn to associate the exchanges as producers of reinforces and the tokens then become valuable and desirable.  In the establishment of token program it should possess certain characteristics such as tokens should be tangible, students should be able to physically handle tokens, students must be able to exchange tokens for tangible reinforces, students should not be able to obtain tokens from another source other than teacher, and students should know how system works. 

Over several weeks I have noticed several inappropriate behaviors exhibited by some of my students.  I have decided to use a token reinforcement program for elementary 3^rd grade students. My first step is to identify the target behaviors I want to increase. I will also be thinking of appropriate behaviors that are compatible with the inappropriate behaviors the students are exhibiting. I have developed a list of three target behaviors that will be reinforced within my token economy program:

§  wandering around the room

§  keeping hands to self

§  raising hand to be recognized by teacher, before speaking out

After identifying my three target behaviors, I will now need to choose the medium of exchange, or what I will use as reinforcers. Reinforcers can vary from food and drinks, time to participate in specific activities, social and verbal praise (Zirpoli, 2008).  I have chosen to use play money (coins) because my students are learning to count money and this would also be a good opportunity to teach math skills while reinforcing appropriate classroom behaviors. Money rather it is play or real is a good token system for kids, especially elementary age students. Students’ working with money gain valuable math concepts such as making change, counting, etc. and reinforcing money skills (Wallin, 2010). In addition reinforcements that use money are easy to reinforce and inexpensive to use with students.

My next step is to identify reinforcers the students will be able to purchase with the tokens they earn.  To help facilitate this step, I will be talking with my students about the plan and asking them for reinforcement suggestions. My students are very excited and gave me many suggestions to think about using. Some of their suggestions would not work and some will, so I let them know what will work and what won’t work and why.

In the development of this program, and from my student’s suggestions I have developed 10 reinforcers and many back up activities for reinforcement menu: students can receive 5 minutes of extra computer time, 5 minutes of extra free time at the reading center, being first in line for 1 day, being the class leader for 1 day, extra notepad paper, extra time at the recreation center, picking an extra book to read, bringing a positive note from home, picking your own seat assignment for 1 day, taking an extra trip to water fountain, picking and reading a story to the class, taking an extra trip to library, pick an extra toy from toy bin, pick any colored pencil from pencil bin, class helper for 1 day. 

After choosing three target behaviors and 15 reinforcers, I next will display on two sheets of card-stock paper on a wall in the classroom for all students to see. I decided that a student will earn one token each time I observe a student exhibiting appropriate behavior for any of the target behaviors.  The students will be able to exchange their tokens for reinforcers every Friday after lunch.  In case some students are not ready to exchange their tokens on the given day, I will allow them the opportunity to save them if they desire to do so.  To further help reinforce student behaviors, I have also developed a contingency contract. A contingency contract is a written behavioral contract between a student and teacher in relation to specific target behavior and the exchange of specific consequences (Zirpoli, 2008). Below is an example of a contingency contract for one of my students:

Contingency Contract (Student’s name) ______________________________________will demonstrate the following appropriate behaviors in the classroom: 1.        Come to class sit down and not wander in classroom. 2.        Respect others by keeping hands to self. 3.        Ask for help when needed by raising hand and getting teacher’s attention.        (Teacher’s name) _______________________________will provide the following reinforcement: 1.        Five tokens for the completion of each of the three objectives. Tokens for the first two objectives will be provided at the beginning of class after class has begun. Tokens for objective 3 will be given to student at the end of the school day.  2.        Tokens may be exchanged for activities on the Classroom Reinforcement Menu after lunch on Fridays.      Student’s signature                                                                           Teacher’s signature _________________                                                                      __________________________                                                                                                                                                                                             ___________                                                                           Date

 Figure 1: Contingency Contract between student and teacher in my class.  This figure illustrates specific target behaviors and the exchange of specific consequences.

According to Barkley (1990) “behaviors targeted for change should be defined in terms of what the child should do, rather than what child should stop doing (p.1). Generalization according to Zirpoli (2008) refers to the degree to which a behavior change adapts to other settings, situations, or behavior relative to those behavior changes. In addition, there are two types of generalization to use and they are response and stimuli generalization.  In an attempt to promote and reinforce generalization of the program, I will do it in several ways, such as teaching appropriate behaviors in a natural classroom setting and within multiple settings, implement behavior changes among several teachers, pinpoint common elements between designated teaching settings and other environments in which I want the behavior to be generalized in, connect artificial reinforcers such as tokens (play money) with natural reinforcers and consequences and using verbal praise in the natural environment setting, the classroom. I will also consider making modifications in the program when teaching students how to use the tokens and verbally reinforcing generalization of skills when desired behaviors are met after I begin the program.  

Token economies are efficient programs that teachers can use in helping to shape and mold a student’s inappropriate classroom behaviors. As previously stated by Zirpoli (2008) token economy programs are described as a form of a “symbolic reinforcement system” (p.321) and through a series of token exchanges can help promote and maintain certain behaviors students are exhibiting in a natural setting such as a classroom.  As Barkley (1990) adds token economy programs are very effective and “powerful behavioral interventions for improving school behavior” (p.1). In addition, he adds that token programs give students real and tangible incentives not typically seen in the classroom setting, and have the advantage of giving students immediate rewards as they develop appropriate classroom behaviors.   

                                                    References

Barkley, R.A. (1990, April, n.d.). Classroom token economies. Retrieved April 14, 2011, from

        http://www.popsmin.tripod.com/classtokenecon.html

 Zirpoli, T. J. (2008). Behavior management: Applications for teachers (5th ed.). Upper

        Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education

Wallin, J. (2010, April, n.d.). Teaching children with autism: visual supports-token economies.

       Retrieved April 14, 2011, form

       http://www.polyxo.com/visualsupport/tokeneconomies.html