Educational Theory Essay

Educational Theory 

Curriculum theory is important to the educational process.  In an effort for educators to effectively understand the curriculum process requires being knowledgeable in its practical applications.  Green and Gredler (2002) perspective, although many educators have not fully grasped its potential, curriculum theory is a vital resource in developing curricular theory and applying to practical school based issues.  Educators informed about the curriculum process make better decision makers and leaders in effective school management and exemplify excellence in the quality of education (pp. 53-65).  Educators view learning through a series of educational theories specific to student and classroom setting.   Curriculum theory is valuable to schools as they process and progress in transferring theories to applicable aims, goals, and objectives.

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), curriculum theory as attributed by Beauchamp, “involves decisions about the use of a curriculum, the development of curriculum, curriculum design, and curriculum evaluation” (p.19). Curriculum theory and various philosophies (discussed in activities 1 and 2) have also influenced educational theories: behaviorism, constructivism, humanism, perennialism, essentialism, and existenlism, progressivism and recontructionism and range in thought from traditional and conservative to contemporary and liberal (p. 57).  

Constructivism Educational Theory

Learning pointed out by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) can be analyzed through three major theories, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology (humanism) (p. 129). The educational theory I have identified that is most useful to my work place is constructivism.   Three cognitive theorists associated with constructivism are Montessori (1870-1952), Piaget (1896-1980), and Vygotsky (early twentieth century) (pp. 140-141).  Montessori’s theory mostly focused on structured play, instituting emphasis of visual and auditory activities, and that children learn at different rates.  Piaget’s work focused on cognitive stages of a child’s development in four stages of learning as sequential and progressive mental operations, moving from hierarchical to more complex operations, known as assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Vygotsky’s theories centered on theory of language and cultural transmission as learner’s are in process of learning, as well as learning mechanics in human development (pp.140-141). 

Cognitive learning theory is the second of three expanding theories during the 1950’s due to the influence of Piaget, and Vygotsky (p. 145).  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) say the educational theory constructivism is categorized by principles centered on the learner.  Learner is essential, active partner in creating meaning or knowledge.  Important still to student knowledge is the ability to construct their “world knowledge into their cognitive processes and perceptions of context, past and present” (p.129).  Constructivism is described as ‘nature of knowledge and nature of learning” (p. 129).  Learners are encouraged to be an active participant in the act of learning rather than passive.  Constructivism is based on the philosophical base progressivism.  Progressivism focuses on “how to think, not what to think” (p. 46).   Dewey and other progressivists, relate, the curriculum intent is interdisciplinary and teacher’s role is to guide students in problem-solving and scientific projects (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 46). 

Although no single educational theory is used by educators to affect student learning, most schools use one prominent educational theory and utilize other educational theories to help achieve overall student success in their academic development (p.).    According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) cite three reasons why a majority of educators, curriculum specialist, learning theorists, are cognitive-oriented: the cognitive approach comprises a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning, the theory is founded in the tradition of subject matter, and educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and understand them (pp. 136-137).

The constructivism educational theory is most useful in my work setting because educators and school personnel have the flexibility to create a curriculum geared toward learner participation.  In addition, because learning is a cognitive process, and emphasizes a learner’s cognitive domain, it can be reasoned that many educators relate learning with cognitive developmental theory (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 136-137).  Another important consideration of constructivism given by Vygotsky (1998) is a student’s need for social interaction.  Because a learner is a social learner, social interaction is essential for knowledge construction, but also leaves room for students to authenticate what they know through group learning, increases discussions, experimentation, enthusiasm, and participation (as cited in  Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 144).

Aims of Constructivism Theory

The aims of constructivism learning theory are a curriculum focused on learner as an active participant, knowledge of learner is designed to build upon past and present knowledge, develop learners cognitive thinking processes through critical thinking and social interactions (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).   In other words, learner assimilates new knowledge and old knowledge. Cooperstein and Weidinger (2004) emphasize learning aims of the constructivism theory are dependent on cognitive thinking, not just physical activity or behavior.  Constructivism learning is inductive.  More importantly, students think about and process the activity, not merely memorize an action, necessary for learning to take place (para. 5).  Dewey expresses this thought, problem solving and activities a learner participates in school also develop intelligence and social growth and those same skills can be transmitted to resolving social problems students may encounter everyday (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131). 

Goals of Constructivism Theory

Goals serve the purpose of unifying and developing specific outcomes of learning. The goals of constructivism theory consist of students actively participate in activities to develop skills such as problem solving and acquiring concepts.  Educators develop lessons focused on development of questions, analyzing and synthesizing information, in an effort to solve problems and to think critically (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 56-57).  In addition, Vygotsky (1930/1996, 1931/1997) cites these specific complex skills as the goal of cognitive growth. They are stated as psychological or cognitive functions: categorical perception, conceptual thinking (verbal and mathematical), logical memory, and voluntary (self-regulated) attention (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 56-57).  

Similarly, goals resulting from Piagetian (1967-1972) thought on the development of logical reasoning resulting from learner’s interactions in manipulation of objects and recognition of conflict between his perceptions and the data.  Based on Piaget’s conclusions focus of reaching goals is development of logical thinking and classroom focus is spontaneous, student led experimentation (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 54-56).  According to Dewey, subject matter cannot be constructed in a “value hierarchy” study of any content can promote a learners development and experiences through a variety of  learning strategies (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 87). 

Objectives of Constructivism Theory

The purpose of objectives in the development of the curriculum is essential for maximizing and focusing stated outcomes in student learning.  Objectives built on constructivism theory consist of curriculum focusing on learner developing critical thinking skills, learner identifying possible solutions in resolving problems; learner encouraged to construct past and present knowledge (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129). Objectives developed through a constructivism theory are stated behavioral techniques as observable actions such as asking questions, demonstrating knowledge through project-based learning (Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 141).

Critique for Implementing Diverse Learning Strategies

   Learning pointed out by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) can be analyzed through three major theories, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology (humanism).  The phenomenology aspect of learning focuses on learner needs (p. 129).  Accomplished through humanism, addresses the relationship between student and teacher.  One weakness of humanism is that it does not address student’s intellectual development, as does the cognitive approach (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 48). 

Because constructivist theory methods are flexible in nature, teachers can implement diverse learning strategies around students’ needs. Classroom practices on constructivism methods as referred by Green and Gredler (2002), perceived as difficult and “not a unified perspective, especially in different theoretical views and diverse classroom” settings (pp. 63-64).  Further perspective is given on how to implement constructivist theories in a special education classroom and across many subject areas.  They suggest in order to remedy this challenge, for special learner needs, learning strategies be developed with an emphasis on flexible grouping, student collaboration, manipulative teacher modeling followed by student practice and gradual independence can provide a framework for giving special needs student developmental control (pp. 63-64).  Despite varied criticisms, constructivist’s educators share these basic beliefs. 

Mentioned previously, a curriculum developed on constructivism theories, learning focused on student’s cognitive developmental stages, and multiple forms of intelligence, critical thinking, and creativity (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).   Based on Vygotsky’s theories implementation of diverse learning strategies for complex cognitive skills, consist of development of metacognition strategies reflective of critical thinking skills that students can transfer to many curriculum areas and content materials (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131). 

Learning is reflective of varied types of learner’s experiences and reflective of diverse multiple intelligences.  Constructivism is concerned with how individuals learn, considerate of individual actively engaged in the process of learning (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).  Mentioned earlier, Piaget and others cite learning is accomplished in developmental stages and certain maturity needs to be in place in order for learning to take place.  Gardner, an advocate of multiple intelligences, cites “there are different mental operations associated with intelligence and …many different types of intelligence” (pp. 125-126).  He further suggest learning strategies to encompass multiple intelligences such as varied activities in the form of mastery dance, playing baseball, as a way to encourage all types of intelligences and all types of learning (p.126). 

Constructivist theory also encompasses problem-solving. Montessori (1870-1952) recaps “children develop at different rates” (pp.140-141).  Students need a definite and concise way in solving everyday problems. Previously mentioned by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), learner’s construct their own meaning. New learning builds on former knowledge and learning is enhanced by social interactions and meaningful learning through authentic tasks (p.131).  How to accurately implement learning strategies shared by Dewey on problem-solving and encouraging systemic interpretation everyday experiences through scientific reasoning are: awareness of difficulty, identify the problem, assemble and classify data and form hypothesis, accept or reject the tentative  hypothesis, and make conclusions and evaluate them (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131).  Opposing criticism speculates on the problem of effective problem-solving or critical thinking” (pp. 130-131) that it does not necessary lead to creativity (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009).  Others agree that creativity represents a quality of mixing humanism and cognitive components in learning (p. 134).  Three types of people as told by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) creative, intelligent, and wise in solving problems, just in different ways (p. 134).

Constructivism, a shift in the way educators think about learning.  A curriculum approach built on critical thinking skills to actively engage students in the process of learning.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) say again, the cognitive approach represents a logical method for organizing and interpreting learner cognitive thinking, rooted in a tradition of subject matter; many educators are already familiar with its concepts and methods (pp.136-137).  Although a constructivism theory is grounded in developing cognitive skills of students, it is time consuming but has many benefits that will benefit all students.  In a concise and well planned, structured, directed activities lead students to discover concepts and develop skills (Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 145). 

References

Cooperstein, S. E., & Kocevar-Weidinger, E. (2004).  Beyond active learning: a constructivist

approach to learning. Reference Services Review, 32(2), 141-148.  Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com/docview/200546638?accountid=28180

Green, S. K., & Gredler, M. E. (2002). A review and analysis of constructivism for school-

based practice.  School Psychology Review, 31(1), 53.

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and 

issues.   [Reader   version].   Retrieved  from  

            http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#  

Analyzing Curriculum Foundations

Important to the discussion are four foundations of curriculum; philosophical, historical, psychological, and social impacting education in our past and present day educational system.  Each of the four major foundations has played a significant role in curriculum development, instructional practices and curriculum development.  I have chosen to write about the curriculum foundation, philosophical and contrast its importance to the other three foundations, historical, psychological, and social.  Philosophy as pointed out by John Goodlad is the initial point in curriculum decision making and a foundation for all subsequent decisions.  Philosophy, Goodlad continues is the means for determining the aims, resources, and ends of curriculum and important to every decision concerning teaching and learning (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  32). 

Philosophy gives an objective to our actions. Philosophy provides educators, in particular, curriculum decision makers, with a framework or frameworks for organizing schools and classrooms.  In addition, a curriculum based on philosophical viewpoints provides to curricular decision makers a way of determining the purpose of schools, subject matter to be taught, how students learn, acceptable content, teaching and learning processes, experiences and activities students can participate in.  Furthermore, a philosophical curriculum offers to schools direction in choosing textbooks to use, how to use them, homework assignments, student tests selection and use of tests (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).   Some of those decisions as stated by previous paragraph consist of curriculum decisions as told by L. Thomas Hopkins, are based on past and present decisions as exampled by pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32)

Again we are reminded, without a definitive unified philosophy, an educator can be unjustifiably swayed by outside pressures (p. 57).  For example, outside pressures in the form of making poor decisions based on a lack of knowledge about content, learning preferences, teaching and learning processes, and student experiences and activities.  In addition, a philosophical viewpoint is crucial to the curriculum process and its influence upon, goals, content, and organization. William Van Til speaks of education as “our philosophy of education determines our educational decisions” and “philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and a good society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 31-32).  Although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future (p. 32).

Within the framework of the philosophical foundation are four major philosophical perspectives important to the curriculum process: idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. These perspectives range from traditional and conservative to contemporary and liberal influencing educational theories: perennialism, and essentialism, progressive and recontructionism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 57).  Philosophies and their effectiveness can be judged by certain principles; through the actions they model (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 38).

In particular many of those actions modeled by a philosophical foundation serve an important purpose of unifying all foundations to meet the total needs of schools and students. 

Despite many changes in the curriculum during the time of the historical foundation, progressive influences (developed from pragmatic philosophy), essentialism, and perennialism thought were prominent during its evolution of curriculum decisions in schools.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) inform theorists Franklin Bobitt (1876-1956) Charters (1875-1952) were major behavioral scientific curriculum influencers.  Bobbitt advocated for a curriculum based on the principles of perennialism rooted in realism and idealism, implementation of knowledge outlined for each subject and the development of applicable activities (p. 89).  In addition, Charters made his mark to the curriculum advocating that curriculum decision makers based their decisions on concise principles in selecting materials that would lead to achievement of specific, measurable objectives.  Another important consideration is that Bobitt and Charles were major instrumental players utilizing philosophical principles impacting curriculum making principles, aims, objectives, needs, learning experiences, emphasized use of behavioral objectives, and initiators of what is now referred to as assessments Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  90).

Further philosophical importance to the historical foundation is shared by progressive theorists, William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) and Harold Ruggs (1886-1960) through the principles behaviorism and progressivism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 98-99).   Progressivist thought includes a curriculum of problem-solving, and scientific methods. Progressivism ideals also encouraged students “how to think, not what to think” (p. 46).  In contrast, because of an ever changing society, Dewey, according to progressivist thought believed students needed to solely focus on problem-solving and scientific methods and not on a “fixed body of knowledge” (p.46).  Imploring the philosophical ideas and concepts of behaviorism and progressivism, curriculum focus now shifted its emphasis on the student and teacher in planning curriculum and to pedagogy and instructional practices (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 98-99).   

Another important curriculum foundation is psychological foundation.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) relate curriculum choices focus on process, not products, personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores and changing environments (space and time) not predetermined environments. Psychological theories embody three modes of learning, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology or humanistic psychology.  Its foundational principles are founded in theories of twentieth century behaviorists, Thorndike, Skinner, and Bandura, and others. Attributed to cognitive learning theories are Vygotsky, and Piaget, and others and a humanistic approach to learning is attributed to theorists Maslow and Rodgers (pp. 140-141).  

The behaviorists, who embody traditional psychology, are grounded in the philosophical theories of nature of learning and ideas of Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, and Rousseau (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.108).  Their learning theories are important because philosophical ideas lay the groundwork in determining curriculum choices.  Moreover, cognitive and behavioral concepts underscore conditioning behavior, and changing the environment effect a determined response from the learner.  In addition, behaviorism principles of learning dominated much of the twentieth century psychology (p. 108).  

Philosophical influences are also a way to access products of the process of learning, Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) express philosophy helps curriculum workers develop and design school practices in unity with the philosophy of the school and community.  Because too often educators and administrators develop and implement behavioral objectives without taking into account a school’s overall philosophy.  As was stated earlier, philosophy directs and guides our actions, without a main philosophy; an educator is subject to many outside pressures (p.57). 

Important to schools the social climate of learners is a contributing factor to successful learning.  Their approach to curriculum and guidance in making decisions affecting learners has also been influenced by a philosophical foundation.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) share curriculum decisions and curricular decision makers need a social compass regarding student diversity, populations, and needs. Through a philosophical approach (pragmatism) social foundations of curriculum are grounded in the educational principles of reconstructionism and as asserted by Philip Phenix, the content of moral content contains five areas human rights, ethics, social relationships, economic life and political life. The above mentioned moral approaches represent a way of “organizing and combining history and English into an interdisciplinary area” of study (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 158).   

Reconstructionist philosophy is founded on socialist and utopian ideas during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (p. 51). Reconceptualists George Counts (1932) and Theodore Brameld (1950) are credited with helping to establish the ideas of philosophical principles.  Counts, stated, “schools become agents of social reform” and Brameld asserted, “students and teachers must improve society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 51). William Pinar another prominent reconceptualist, asserted that a reconcepualist curriculum focuses on “personal becoming, afflilative needs, sensitivity, and enjoyment” (p. 53).  Although, a philosophical base was influential, according to Counts, progressive education overlooked the problems of 1920’s and 1930’s, mainly, discrimination, poverty, and unemployment (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  51). 

Mentioned earlier, although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).  Selection of philosophical foundation of curriculum its application to the work place consist of educators and all curricular decision makers knowing the outcome of specific curriculum choices, classroom observations, lesson plans, teacher-student relationships.  Thomas Hopkins, relates an educators decisions are based in part on past and present choices as pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32). 

A Philosophical foundation of curriculum is essential, because its principles have united historical, social, and psychological foundations together as a unifying body  to meet  the social, emotional, and moral needs student, schools and teachers.  On any given day educators face many challenges to finding the best solution for challenges.  A philosophical approach gives direction in meeting those challenges and solutions. 

The above mentioned choices shared by Hopkins, are just some of the ways challenges are met in the classroom setting through a philosophical curriculum. Other examples include choices about, but not limited to knowing what prior knowledge is useful in the construction of curriculum, time in planning lessons, what will be included in the curriculum.  Based on a philosophical foundation educators can meet those challenges.  But the key to remember all curriculum choices need a unified direction and purpose in achieving set goals, and objectives. 

References

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues.  

[Reader   version].   Retrieved  from 

http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#

Defining Curriculum

Defining Curriculum Essay

Curriculum is a field of study ever changing to fit the needs of students, educators and school administrators.  Throughout its history to accurately define the field of curriculum is still a subject of great debate. Views vary widely since curriculum involves a wide assortment of people, students, and learning disciplines. To help define and narrow down a definition for curriculum, Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) through the definition of others define curriculum in terms of these five definitions: the first definition of curriculum, emphasizes a plan in reaching goals. This view is credited to Tyler and Taba, seen as a “linear view of curriculum.” this second definition takes into consideration student experiences. This definition is expressed by Dewey as a way of viewing non-academic subject matter designed in or outside of school as the curriculum and any student experiences (pp. 10-11).  

The third way of defining curriculum focuses on a system for dealing with people. This definition is considered less popular than the first two, and be directed or non-directed.  The fourth definition for curriculum is a field of study comprising its own foundations, and is concerned with subject matter historical, philosophical or social issues. This view has been popularized by William Reid, Schubert, and the Tanners. Lastly, curriculum can be defined in terms of subject matter (math, science, English, history), or content (how to organize and integrate information).  This last definition of curriculum is the most accepted among schools because it does allow for emphasis to be on subject matter dealing with facts and concepts (pp. 10-11).  Each of these five definitions will be further analyzed through the influence of six curriculum approaches.

Important considerations to further defining the word curriculum are also given to the many challenges presented, such as defining curriculum too narrowly may lead to, what Eisner calls the null curriculum, subject matter and experiences that are not taught as well as curriculum consisting of planned formal knowledge and unplanned informal knowledge are important to its definition (pp. 10-11).  Taking all of these definitions as a starting place will help to bridge the gap between past and present definitions and help future educators in understanding all of the dynamics of an effective curriculum. 

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) six curriculum approaches are Behavioral Approach, Managerial Approach, Systems Approach, Academic Approach, Reconceptualist Approach, and Humanistic Approach. Each one is important to our definition of the word curriculum.  In addition, these six approaches can be classified as “technical/scientific or nontechnical/nonscientific” models of education (pp. 2-10).  As Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) add each of these five definitions along with the six curriculum approaches forms the basis of a well-rounded curriculum centered on addressing student needs, teachers, administrators and all supporting staff.  In consideration, the curriculum success can also be affected by discrepancies upon the successful implementation of the curriculum and subsequent classroom instruction and overall student success (pp. 2-10).      

Beginning with the Behavioral approach associated and founded on the principles of Bobbitt, Charters, Tyler, and Taba.  This approach defines curriculum in terms of “logical, prescriptive, and technical and scientific methods and models.”  This model is also considered the oldest and most prominent of all the approaches.  Curriculum plan entails lessons that are focused on “learner’s needs” and takes into consideration goals and objectives focused on student behavior (pp. 2-3).  The second approach Managerial approach defines curriculum in consideration of the needs of the workers involved such as curriculum specialists, supervisors, and administrative staff.  Through this approach educators are able to plan and focus the curriculum to specific programs, schedules, space, resources, equipment, and personnel (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 2-5). 

The third curriculum approach is the Systems approach defines curriculum in terms of organizing people and policies with an end result of relating all parts to the whole.  George Beauchamp is credited with the first systems theory of curriculum.  He emphasized five key points in this educational approach: administration, counseling, curriculum, instruction, and evaluation. A curriculum plan using this approach stresses the use of organizational diagrams, flow charts, and committee structures including subjects, courses, unit plans, and lesson plans (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 5-7).  As schools experience changes in policy and student populations the curriculum also changes, many schools utilize the elements in the fourth approach, the Academic approach.  The Academic approach founded on the theories of John Dewey, Henry Morrison, and Boyd Bode. This approach to curriculum is based on centering curriculum that is non-traditional, such as historical knowledge, philosophical, social, and political. Schools adopting this approach are able to develop a student’s sense of self beyond subject matter and pedagogy (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 7-8). 

The fifth curriculum approach is the Humanistic approach, grounded in utilizing instructional strategies such as cooperative learning, independent learning, small-group learning, and social activities instead of competitive, teacher-dominated , large group learning. Schools that adopt this approach emphasize active student participation in in the context of learning (p. 9).   Our sixth approach is the Reconceptualist approach, highlighting that change is a focal point. Considered an extension of the humanistic approach, targets learning through political, economic, social, moral, and artistic endeavors Schools using this approach envision the curriculum as a means to help schools become an extension of the community and society, greatly benefiting the student’s sense of self and social power in and out of the classroom.    Associated with this sixth approach are the developmental theories of Pinar and past theorists such as George Counts, Harold Rugg, and Harold Benjamin (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 9-10).

Now that we have an idea about the definition of curriculum, how do curriculum and instruction work together successful? In consideration of these definitions and curriculum approaches to define curriculum, I define curriculum in my own terms consisting of what is taught, well-planned in subject matter (math, science, English, history) and consideration of student needs.  What is instruction?  Instruction is how the curriculum will be taught and consideration is given to diverse instructional strategies and student needs.  Furthermore, instruction and curriculum are interdependent on each other.  If the curriculum lacks diversity in its foundations, subject matter, lesson planning, creation of student experiences, instruction will lack in the choices teacher chooses to teach.  

This I would say is the distinguishing difference and similarity between curriculum and instruction. In addition, in defining curriculum, it should not be limited to the above subject matter (math, science, English, and history).  A well-developed curriculum affords us the opportunity to present to our students diversity in subject matter, presentation, lessons plans, and instructional strategies.  Curriculum and instruction are also dependent on the quality of teacher effectiveness.  Curriculum and creative instruction planned according to student needs can yield positive interactions, and outcomes in aiding the learner in their development of personal insight and social power.

For example, creation of effective curriculum with an emphasis on student development also should include but not limited to the creation of meaningful activities, positive teacher-student relationships provide positive classroom environments, mutual accommodations for all students, inclusion of all diverse learning and student populations and encourage family involvement at all levels of learning.  With such a great diversity in student population educators benefit by knowing what others are saying about the field of curriculum as well as how to apply to practical practices in the classroom. As I stated earlier these are some of the starting points to get all schools on the same level of helping all learners develop personal insight and social power. 

A student’s perception of who they are and how they function in a social context is an important point in understanding the curriculum. Experiences that help students increase their thinking and develop social relationships are important. These learning experiences help to foster a student’s self-esteem and increase the chances that learning will have a positive outcome. Social power or the lack of affects a student’s social power.  One of the ways is in the process of learning, students need effective ways to learn from each other and how to transfer what is learned (through instruction) to real-world applications. The Behaviorist approach advocates “learners as cognitive individuals functioning within a social context” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 3).  For example, we can begin with the instructional strategy of cooperative group learning.  Cooperative group learning gives students access to positive student interactions and reinforcement of social skills. These types of learning opportunities are invaluable and can be constructed to other learning that supports learning and social power. Cooperative group learning and instructional strategies involving direct interaction with the learner is rooted in the perspective of the Humanistic approach, with an emphasis on active student participation and building a student’s self-esteem which is an aspect of social power and conscious (p. 9).

Understanding why some students do well in school and others do not is a crucial issue.  The many reasons are as divisive as the defining of curriculum. Understanding these and other theories is the first step to understanding the dynamics of the many influences that may affect our student’s learning and the way we choose to teach those students. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) remind us the curriculum theory entails decisions about the use of the curriculum, the use and development of the curricular, design and evaluation.  Furthermore, curriculum theory involves a variety of disciplines represented as philosophical, historical, psychological, and social which is used to define the boundaries of knowledge with the context of the field of curriculum. In addition, the curriculum theory defines and explains the concepts, principles and relationships pertinent to all domains existing with the field of curriculum (pp. 13-19).

The knowledge of these principles within the theoretical framework is the first step in understanding many issues, and to support students learning by integrating structural equality that will benefit all of our students.  Some of those equalities as mentioned in the Systems approach are considerate of “curriculum issues” affecting the “entire school and school system” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 7).  Teachers have the responsibility to make sure each student is given the best opportunity in which to learn and instructional lessons are designed with student’s individual needs are taken into consideration. 

As educators, recognizing what our students need and how to teach the subject matter is one aspect of knowing the student and how best to use the curriculum.  Tobin (2008) expresses this thought, comprehending curriculum and knowledge of student skills, interests and backgrounds is required for success of all students (p.162).  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) add that the Academic curriculum approach considers the changing student population and calls for administrators and all participants to also include a curriculum diverse in subject matter such as “religion, psychotherapy, literary criticism, and linguistics” (p. 8).  In the process of learning, students need effective ways to master the material and learn from each other.  Based on the traditional theories of social organization the teacher’s role in the curriculum process is essential to its effectiveness (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 25).

Teachers understand the importance of providing meaningful connections that students can participate in.   As previously stated, the quality of instruction is dependent on teacher effectiveness.  The best curriculum is less than effective if we are not willing to approach it from a series of diverse applications, just as students are diverse in learning our approach to curriculum and instruction needs a diverse approach.  Using the knowledge of others to define the word curriculum, educators can envision curriculum to fit their needs and needs of students.

Changes in part due to society and the many forces that shape its foundation will continue to shape the definition of curriculum. As was mentioned earlier in this paper, relationships provide positive classroom environments, mutual accommodations for all students, inclusion of all diverse learning, student populations and encourage family involvement at all levels of learning. Furthermore, because relationships are an aspect of the curriculum definition, we are reminded of these words based on the humanistic approach, “education must focus both on the personal and interpersonal” (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 9).  Diverse opinions in defining the word curriculum is ever-changing but the four foundations its theories, ideas, concepts are based on philosophical, historical, psychological, and social factors most theorists agree as a valid way to construct knowledge of curriculum (p.13). 

References

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues.  

[Reader   version].   Retrieved  from  

http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#

Tobin, R. (2008). Conundrums in the differentiated literacy classroom.  Reading

Improvement Journal, 45(4), 159-169.