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Wednesday, May 29, 2013

Analyzing Curriculum Foundations




Important to the discussion are four foundations of curriculum; philosophical, historical, psychological, and social impacting education in our past and present day educational system.  Each of the four major foundations has played a significant role in curriculum development, instructional practices and curriculum development.  I have chosen to write about the curriculum foundation, philosophical and contrast its importance to the other three foundations, historical, psychological, and social.  Philosophy as pointed out by John Goodlad is the initial point in curriculum decision making and a foundation for all subsequent decisions.  Philosophy, Goodlad continues is the means for determining the aims, resources, and ends of curriculum and important to every decision concerning teaching and learning (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  32). 
Philosophy gives an objective to our actions. Philosophy provides educators, in particular, curriculum decision makers, with a framework or frameworks for organizing schools and classrooms.  In addition, a curriculum based on philosophical viewpoints provides to curricular decision makers a way of determining the purpose of schools, subject matter to be taught, how students learn, acceptable content, teaching and learning processes, experiences and activities students can participate in.  Furthermore, a philosophical curriculum offers to schools direction in choosing textbooks to use, how to use them, homework assignments, student tests selection and use of tests (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).   Some of those decisions as stated by previous paragraph consist of curriculum decisions as told by L. Thomas Hopkins, are based on past and present decisions as exampled by pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32)
Again we are reminded, without a definitive unified philosophy, an educator can be unjustifiably swayed by outside pressures (p. 57).  For example, outside pressures in the form of making poor decisions based on a lack of knowledge about content, learning preferences, teaching and learning processes, and student experiences and activities.  In addition, a philosophical viewpoint is crucial to the curriculum process and its influence upon, goals, content, and organization. William Van Til speaks of education as “our philosophy of education determines our educational decisions” and “philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and a good society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 31-32).  Although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future (p. 32).
Within the framework of the philosophical foundation are four major philosophical perspectives important to the curriculum process: idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. These perspectives range from traditional and conservative to contemporary and liberal influencing educational theories: perennialism, and essentialism, progressive and recontructionism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 57).  Philosophies and their effectiveness can be judged by certain principles; through the actions they model (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 38).
In particular many of those actions modeled by a philosophical foundation serve an important purpose of unifying all foundations to meet the total needs of schools and students. 
Despite many changes in the curriculum during the time of the historical foundation, progressive influences (developed from pragmatic philosophy), essentialism, and perennialism thought were prominent during its evolution of curriculum decisions in schools.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) inform theorists Franklin Bobitt (1876-1956) Charters (1875-1952) were major behavioral scientific curriculum influencers.  Bobbitt advocated for a curriculum based on the principles of perennialism rooted in realism and idealism, implementation of knowledge outlined for each subject and the development of applicable activities (p. 89).  In addition, Charters made his mark to the curriculum advocating that curriculum decision makers based their decisions on concise principles in selecting materials that would lead to achievement of specific, measurable objectives.  Another important consideration is that Bobitt and Charles were major instrumental players utilizing philosophical principles impacting curriculum making principles, aims, objectives, needs, learning experiences, emphasized use of behavioral objectives, and initiators of what is now referred to as assessments Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  90).
Further philosophical importance to the historical foundation is shared by progressive theorists, William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) and Harold Ruggs (1886-1960) through the principles behaviorism and progressivism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 98-99).   Progressivist thought includes a curriculum of problem-solving, and scientific methods. Progressivism ideals also encouraged students “how to think, not what to think” (p. 46).  In contrast, because of an ever changing society, Dewey, according to progressivist thought believed students needed to solely focus on problem-solving and scientific methods and not on a “fixed body of knowledge” (p.46).  Imploring the philosophical ideas and concepts of behaviorism and progressivism, curriculum focus now shifted its emphasis on the student and teacher in planning curriculum and to pedagogy and instructional practices (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 98-99).   
Another important curriculum foundation is psychological foundation.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) relate curriculum choices focus on process, not products, personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores and changing environments (space and time) not predetermined environments. Psychological theories embody three modes of learning, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology or humanistic psychology.  Its foundational principles are founded in theories of twentieth century behaviorists, Thorndike, Skinner, and Bandura, and others. Attributed to cognitive learning theories are Vygotsky, and Piaget, and others and a humanistic approach to learning is attributed to theorists Maslow and Rodgers (pp. 140-141).  
The behaviorists, who embody traditional psychology, are grounded in the philosophical theories of nature of learning and ideas of Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, and Rousseau (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.108).  Their learning theories are important because philosophical ideas lay the groundwork in determining curriculum choices.  Moreover, cognitive and behavioral concepts underscore conditioning behavior, and changing the environment effect a determined response from the learner.  In addition, behaviorism principles of learning dominated much of the twentieth century psychology (p. 108).  
Philosophical influences are also a way to access products of the process of learning, Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) express philosophy helps curriculum workers develop and design school practices in unity with the philosophy of the school and community.  Because too often educators and administrators develop and implement behavioral objectives without taking into account a school’s overall philosophy.  As was stated earlier, philosophy directs and guides our actions, without a main philosophy; an educator is subject to many outside pressures (p.57). 
Important to schools the social climate of learners is a contributing factor to successful learning.  Their approach to curriculum and guidance in making decisions affecting learners has also been influenced by a philosophical foundation.  Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) share curriculum decisions and curricular decision makers need a social compass regarding student diversity, populations, and needs. Through a philosophical approach (pragmatism) social foundations of curriculum are grounded in the educational principles of reconstructionism and as asserted by Philip Phenix, the content of moral content contains five areas human rights, ethics, social relationships, economic life and political life. The above mentioned moral approaches represent a way of “organizing and combining history and English into an interdisciplinary area” of study (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 158).   
Reconstructionist philosophy is founded on socialist and utopian ideas during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (p. 51). Reconceptualists George Counts (1932) and Theodore Brameld (1950) are credited with helping to establish the ideas of philosophical principles.  Counts, stated, “schools become agents of social reform” and Brameld asserted, “students and teachers must improve society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 51). William Pinar another prominent reconceptualist, asserted that a reconcepualist curriculum focuses on “personal becoming, afflilative needs, sensitivity, and enjoyment” (p. 53).  Although, a philosophical base was influential, according to Counts, progressive education overlooked the problems of 1920’s and 1930’s, mainly, discrimination, poverty, and unemployment (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.  51). 
Mentioned earlier, although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).  Selection of philosophical foundation of curriculum its application to the work place consist of educators and all curricular decision makers knowing the outcome of specific curriculum choices, classroom observations, lesson plans, teacher-student relationships.  Thomas Hopkins, relates an educators decisions are based in part on past and present choices as pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32). 
A Philosophical foundation of curriculum is essential, because its principles have united historical, social, and psychological foundations together as a unifying body  to meet  the social, emotional, and moral needs student, schools and teachers.  On any given day educators face many challenges to finding the best solution for challenges.  A philosophical approach gives direction in meeting those challenges and solutions. 
The above mentioned choices shared by Hopkins, are just some of the ways challenges are met in the classroom setting through a philosophical curriculum. Other examples include choices about, but not limited to knowing what prior knowledge is useful in the construction of curriculum, time in planning lessons, what will be included in the curriculum.  Based on a philosophical foundation educators can meet those challenges.  But the key to remember all curriculum choices need a unified direction and purpose in achieving set goals, and objectives. 


References
Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P.   (2009).   Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues.  
[Reader   version].   Retrieved  from 








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