Important to the
discussion are four foundations of curriculum; philosophical, historical,
psychological, and social impacting education in our past and present day
educational system. Each of the four
major foundations has played a significant role in curriculum development,
instructional practices and curriculum development. I have chosen to write about the curriculum
foundation, philosophical and contrast its importance to the other three
foundations, historical, psychological, and social. Philosophy as pointed out by John Goodlad is
the initial point in curriculum decision making and a foundation for all
subsequent decisions. Philosophy, Goodlad
continues is the means for determining the aims, resources, and ends of
curriculum and important to every decision concerning teaching and learning (as
cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.
32).
Philosophy gives
an objective to our actions. Philosophy provides educators, in particular,
curriculum decision makers, with a framework or frameworks for organizing
schools and classrooms. In addition, a
curriculum based on philosophical viewpoints provides to curricular decision
makers a way of determining the purpose of schools, subject matter to be
taught, how students learn, acceptable content, teaching and learning
processes, experiences and activities students can participate in. Furthermore, a philosophical curriculum offers
to schools direction in choosing textbooks to use, how to use them, homework
assignments, student tests selection and use of tests (Ornstein and Hunkins,
2009, p. 32). Some of those decisions as stated by previous
paragraph consist of curriculum decisions as told by L. Thomas Hopkins, are
based on past and present decisions as exampled by pupil-teacher time schedule,
school selection of what course to study, assignment of more homework, shifting
subject matter from one grade to another, measurement experts interpreting
tests results to a group of teachers (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009,
p. 32)
Again we are
reminded, without a definitive unified philosophy, an educator can be
unjustifiably swayed by outside pressures (p. 57). For example, outside pressures in the form of
making poor decisions based on a lack of knowledge about content, learning
preferences, teaching and learning processes, and student experiences and
activities. In addition, a philosophical
viewpoint is crucial to the curriculum process and its influence upon, goals,
content, and organization. William Van Til speaks of education as “our
philosophy of education determines our educational decisions” and “philosophy
attempts to define the nature of the good life and a good society” (as cited in
Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 31-32). Although
all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the curriculum, the
philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in helping schools
make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching decisions and will
continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future (p. 32).
Within the
framework of the philosophical foundation are four major philosophical
perspectives important to the curriculum process: idealism, realism,
pragmatism, and existentialism. These perspectives range from traditional and
conservative to contemporary and liberal influencing educational theories:
perennialism, and essentialism, progressive and recontructionism (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 2009, p. 57). Philosophies and
their effectiveness can be judged by certain principles; through the actions
they model (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 38).
In particular
many of those actions modeled by a philosophical foundation serve an important purpose
of unifying all foundations to meet the total needs of schools and
students.
Despite many
changes in the curriculum during the time of the historical foundation,
progressive influences (developed from pragmatic philosophy), essentialism, and
perennialism thought were prominent during its evolution of curriculum
decisions in schools. Ornstein and
Hunkins (2009) inform theorists Franklin Bobitt (1876-1956) Charters
(1875-1952) were major behavioral scientific curriculum influencers. Bobbitt advocated for a curriculum based on
the principles of perennialism rooted in realism and idealism, implementation
of knowledge outlined for each subject and the development of applicable
activities (p. 89). In addition,
Charters made his mark to the curriculum advocating that curriculum decision
makers based their decisions on concise principles in selecting materials that
would lead to achievement of specific, measurable objectives. Another important consideration is that
Bobitt and Charles were major instrumental players utilizing philosophical
principles impacting curriculum making principles, aims, objectives, needs,
learning experiences, emphasized use of behavioral objectives, and initiators
of what is now referred to as assessments Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 90).
Further
philosophical importance to the historical foundation is shared by progressive
theorists, William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) and Harold Ruggs (1886-1960) through
the principles behaviorism and progressivism (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp.
98-99). Progressivist thought includes a curriculum of
problem-solving, and scientific methods. Progressivism ideals also encouraged students
“how to think, not what to think” (p. 46). In contrast, because of an ever changing
society, Dewey, according to progressivist thought believed students needed to
solely focus on problem-solving and scientific methods and not on a “fixed body
of knowledge” (p.46). Imploring the
philosophical ideas and concepts of behaviorism and progressivism, curriculum
focus now shifted its emphasis on the student and teacher in planning
curriculum and to pedagogy and instructional practices (Ornstein and Hunkins,
2009, pp. 98-99).
Another
important curriculum foundation is psychological foundation. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) relate curriculum
choices focus on process, not products, personal needs, not subject matter,
psychological meaning, not cognitive scores and changing environments (space
and time) not predetermined environments. Psychological theories embody three
modes of learning, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology or
humanistic psychology. Its foundational
principles are founded in theories of twentieth century behaviorists, Thorndike,
Skinner, and Bandura, and others. Attributed to cognitive learning theories are
Vygotsky, and Piaget, and others and a humanistic approach to learning is
attributed to theorists Maslow and Rodgers (pp. 140-141).
The
behaviorists, who embody traditional psychology, are grounded in the
philosophical theories of nature of learning and ideas of Aristotle, Descartes,
Locke, and Rousseau (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.108). Their learning theories are important because
philosophical ideas lay the groundwork in determining curriculum choices. Moreover, cognitive and behavioral concepts
underscore conditioning behavior, and changing the environment effect a
determined response from the learner. In
addition, behaviorism principles of learning dominated much of the twentieth
century psychology (p. 108).
Philosophical
influences are also a way to access products of the process of learning, Ornstein
and Hunkins (2009) express philosophy helps curriculum workers develop and
design school practices in unity with the philosophy of the school and
community. Because too often educators
and administrators develop and implement behavioral objectives without taking
into account a school’s overall philosophy.
As was stated earlier, philosophy directs and guides our actions, without
a main philosophy; an educator is subject to many outside pressures (p.57).
Important to
schools the social climate of learners is a contributing factor to successful
learning. Their approach to curriculum
and guidance in making decisions affecting learners has also been influenced by
a philosophical foundation. Ornstein and
Hunkins (2009) share curriculum decisions and curricular decision makers need a
social compass regarding student diversity, populations, and needs. Through a
philosophical approach (pragmatism) social foundations of curriculum are
grounded in the educational principles of reconstructionism and as asserted by
Philip Phenix, the content of moral content contains five areas human rights,
ethics, social relationships, economic life and political life. The above
mentioned moral approaches represent a way of “organizing and combining history
and English into an interdisciplinary area” of study (as cited in Ornstein and
Hunkins, 2009, p. 158).
Reconstructionist
philosophy is founded on socialist and utopian ideas during the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries (p. 51). Reconceptualists George Counts (1932)
and Theodore Brameld (1950) are credited with helping to establish the ideas of
philosophical principles. Counts,
stated, “schools become agents of social reform” and Brameld asserted,
“students and teachers must improve society” (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins,
2009, p. 51). William Pinar another prominent reconceptualist, asserted that a
reconcepualist curriculum focuses on “personal becoming, afflilative needs,
sensitivity, and enjoyment” (p. 53). Although,
a philosophical base was influential, according to Counts, progressive
education overlooked the problems of 1920’s and 1930’s, mainly, discrimination,
poverty, and unemployment (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 51).
Mentioned
earlier, although all four curriculum foundations serve a purpose in the
curriculum, the philosophical foundation past and present has been prominent in
helping schools make important decisions regarding curriculum and teaching
decisions and will continue to be the basis of decisions made in the future another,
measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (Ornstein
and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32). Selection of
philosophical foundation of curriculum its application to the work place
consist of educators and all curricular decision makers knowing the outcome of specific
curriculum choices, classroom observations, lesson plans, teacher-student
relationships. Thomas Hopkins, relates an
educators decisions are based in part on past and present choices as
pupil-teacher time schedule, school selection of what course to study,
assignment of more homework, shifting subject matter from one grade to another,
measurement experts interpreting tests results to a group of teachers (as cited
in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 32).
A Philosophical
foundation of curriculum is essential, because its principles have united historical,
social, and psychological foundations together as a unifying body to meet
the social, emotional, and moral needs student, schools and
teachers. On any given day educators face
many challenges to finding the best solution for challenges. A philosophical approach gives direction in
meeting those challenges and solutions.
The above
mentioned choices shared by Hopkins, are just some of the ways challenges are met
in the classroom setting through a philosophical curriculum. Other examples include
choices about, but not limited to knowing what prior knowledge is useful in the
construction of curriculum, time in planning lessons, what will be included in
the curriculum. Based on a philosophical
foundation educators can meet those challenges.
But the key to remember all curriculum choices need a unified direction
and purpose in achieving set goals, and objectives.
References
Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins,
F. P. (2009). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and
issues.
[Reader version].
Retrieved from
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