Educational Theory
Curriculum
theory is important to the educational process.
In an effort for educators to effectively understand the curriculum
process requires being knowledgeable in its practical applications. Green and Gredler (2002) perspective, although
many educators have not fully grasped its potential, curriculum theory is a
vital resource in developing curricular theory and applying to practical school
based issues. Educators informed about
the curriculum process make better decision makers and leaders in effective
school management and exemplify excellence in the quality of education (pp.
53-65). Educators view learning through
a series of educational theories specific to student and classroom
setting. Curriculum theory is valuable to schools as
they process and progress in transferring theories to applicable aims, goals,
and objectives.
According to
Ornstein and Hunkins (2009), curriculum theory as attributed by Beauchamp, “involves
decisions about the use of a curriculum, the development of curriculum,
curriculum design, and curriculum evaluation” (p.19). Curriculum theory and
various philosophies (discussed in activities 1 and 2) have also influenced
educational theories: behaviorism, constructivism, humanism, perennialism,
essentialism, and existenlism, progressivism and recontructionism and range in
thought from traditional and conservative to contemporary and liberal (p. 57).
Constructivism Educational Theory
Learning pointed
out by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) can be analyzed through three major
theories, behaviorism, cognitive development, and phenomenology (humanism) (p. 129).
The educational theory I have identified that is most useful to my work place
is constructivism. Three cognitive
theorists associated with constructivism are Montessori (1870-1952), Piaget
(1896-1980), and Vygotsky (early twentieth century) (pp. 140-141). Montessori’s theory mostly focused on
structured play, instituting emphasis of visual and auditory activities, and
that children learn at different rates.
Piaget’s work focused on cognitive stages of a child’s development in
four stages of learning as sequential and progressive mental operations, moving
from hierarchical to more complex operations, known as assimilation,
accommodation, and equilibration. Vygotsky’s theories centered on theory of
language and cultural transmission as learner’s are in process of learning, as
well as learning mechanics in human development (pp.140-141).
Cognitive
learning theory is the second of three expanding theories during the 1950’s due
to the influence of Piaget, and Vygotsky (p. 145). Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) say the
educational theory constructivism is categorized by principles centered on the
learner. Learner is essential, active
partner in creating meaning or knowledge.
Important still to student knowledge is the ability to construct their
“world knowledge into their cognitive processes and perceptions of context,
past and present” (p.129). Constructivism
is described as ‘nature of knowledge and nature of learning” (p. 129). Learners are encouraged to be an active
participant in the act of learning rather than passive. Constructivism is based on the philosophical base
progressivism. Progressivism focuses on “how
to think, not what to think” (p. 46). Dewey and other progressivists, relate, the
curriculum intent is interdisciplinary and teacher’s role is to guide students
in problem-solving and scientific projects (as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins,
2009, p. 46).
Although no
single educational theory is used by educators to affect student learning, most
schools use one prominent educational theory and utilize other educational
theories to help achieve overall student success in their academic development (p.). According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) cite
three reasons why a majority of educators, curriculum specialist, learning theorists,
are cognitive-oriented: the cognitive approach comprises a logical method for
organizing and interpreting learning, the theory is founded in the tradition of
subject matter, and educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and
understand them (pp. 136-137).
The
constructivism educational theory is most useful in my work setting because
educators and school personnel have the flexibility to create a curriculum
geared toward learner participation. In
addition, because learning is a cognitive process, and emphasizes a learner’s
cognitive domain, it can be reasoned that many educators relate learning with
cognitive developmental theory (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 136-137). Another important consideration of
constructivism given by Vygotsky (1998) is a student’s need for social
interaction. Because a learner is a
social learner, social interaction is essential for knowledge construction, but
also leaves room for students to authenticate what they know through group
learning, increases discussions, experimentation, enthusiasm, and participation
(as cited in Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004,
p. 144).
Aims of Constructivism Theory
The aims of
constructivism learning theory are a curriculum focused on learner as an active
participant, knowledge of learner is designed to build upon past and present
knowledge, develop learners cognitive thinking processes through critical
thinking and social interactions (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129). In other words, learner assimilates new knowledge
and old knowledge. Cooperstein and Weidinger (2004) emphasize learning aims of
the constructivism theory are dependent on cognitive thinking, not just
physical activity or behavior. Constructivism
learning is inductive. More importantly,
students think about and process the activity, not merely memorize an action, necessary
for learning to take place (para. 5). Dewey
expresses this thought, problem solving and activities a learner participates
in school also develop intelligence and social growth and those same skills can
be transmitted to resolving social problems students may encounter everyday (Ornstein
and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131).
Goals of Constructivism Theory
Goals serve the
purpose of unifying and developing specific outcomes of learning. The goals of
constructivism theory consist of students actively participate in activities to
develop skills such as problem solving and acquiring concepts. Educators develop lessons focused on
development of questions, analyzing and synthesizing information, in an effort
to solve problems and to think critically (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002,
pp. 56-57). In addition, Vygotsky
(1930/1996, 1931/1997) cites these specific complex skills as the goal of cognitive
growth. They are stated as psychological or cognitive functions: categorical
perception, conceptual thinking (verbal and mathematical), logical memory, and
voluntary (self-regulated) attention (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 56-57).
Similarly, goals
resulting from Piagetian (1967-1972) thought on the development of logical
reasoning resulting from learner’s interactions in manipulation of objects and
recognition of conflict between his perceptions and the data. Based on Piaget’s conclusions focus of
reaching goals is development of logical thinking and classroom focus is spontaneous,
student led experimentation (as cited in Green and Gredler, 2002, pp. 54-56). According to Dewey, subject matter cannot be
constructed in a “value hierarchy” study of any content can promote a learners
development and experiences through a variety of learning strategies (Ornstein and Hunkins,
2009, p. 87).
Objectives of Constructivism Theory
The purpose of
objectives in the development of the curriculum is essential for maximizing and
focusing stated outcomes in student learning.
Objectives built on constructivism theory consist of curriculum focusing
on learner developing critical thinking skills, learner identifying possible
solutions in resolving problems; learner encouraged to construct past and
present knowledge (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129). Objectives developed
through a constructivism theory are stated behavioral techniques as observable
actions such as asking questions, demonstrating knowledge through project-based
learning (Cooperstein and Weidinger, 2004, p. 141).
Critique for Implementing Diverse Learning
Strategies
Learning pointed out by Ornstein and Hunkins
(2009) can be analyzed through three major theories, behaviorism, cognitive
development, and phenomenology (humanism).
The phenomenology aspect of learning focuses on learner needs (p. 129). Accomplished through humanism, addresses the
relationship between student and teacher.
One weakness of humanism is that it does not address student’s
intellectual development, as does the cognitive approach (Ornstein and Hunkins,
2009, p. 48).
Because
constructivist theory methods are flexible in nature, teachers can implement
diverse learning strategies around students’ needs. Classroom practices on
constructivism methods as referred by Green and Gredler (2002), perceived as
difficult and “not a unified perspective, especially in different theoretical
views and diverse classroom” settings (pp. 63-64). Further perspective is given on how to
implement constructivist theories in a special education classroom and across
many subject areas. They suggest in
order to remedy this challenge, for special learner needs, learning strategies
be developed with an emphasis on flexible grouping, student collaboration,
manipulative teacher modeling followed by student practice and gradual
independence can provide a framework for giving special needs student
developmental control (pp. 63-64). Despite
varied criticisms, constructivist’s educators share these basic beliefs.
Mentioned
previously, a curriculum developed on constructivism theories, learning focused
on student’s cognitive developmental stages, and multiple forms of
intelligence, critical thinking, and creativity (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p.
129). Based on Vygotsky’s theories
implementation of diverse learning strategies for complex cognitive skills, consist
of development of metacognition strategies reflective of critical thinking
skills that students can transfer to many curriculum areas and content
materials (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131).
Learning is reflective
of varied types of learner’s experiences and reflective of diverse multiple intelligences. Constructivism is concerned with how
individuals learn, considerate of individual actively engaged in the process of
learning (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 129).
Mentioned earlier, Piaget and others cite learning is accomplished in
developmental stages and certain maturity needs to be in place in order for
learning to take place. Gardner, an
advocate of multiple intelligences, cites “there are different mental operations
associated with intelligence and …many different types of intelligence” (pp.
125-126). He further suggest learning
strategies to encompass multiple intelligences such as varied activities in the
form of mastery dance, playing baseball, as a way to encourage all types of
intelligences and all types of learning (p.126).
Constructivist
theory also encompasses problem-solving. Montessori (1870-1952) recaps
“children develop at different rates” (pp.140-141). Students need a definite and concise way in
solving everyday problems. Previously mentioned by Ornstein and Hunkins (2009),
learner’s construct their own meaning. New learning builds on former knowledge
and learning is enhanced by social interactions and meaningful learning through
authentic tasks (p.131). How to
accurately implement learning strategies shared by Dewey on problem-solving and
encouraging systemic interpretation everyday experiences through scientific
reasoning are: awareness of difficulty, identify the problem, assemble and
classify data and form hypothesis, accept or reject the tentative hypothesis, and make conclusions and evaluate
them (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 131).
Opposing criticism speculates on the problem of effective
problem-solving or critical thinking” (pp. 130-131) that it does not necessary
lead to creativity (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009). Others agree that creativity represents a
quality of mixing humanism and cognitive components in learning (p. 134). Three types of people as told by Ornstein and
Hunkins (2009) creative, intelligent, and wise in solving problems, just in
different ways (p. 134).
Constructivism,
a shift in the way educators think about learning. A curriculum approach built on critical
thinking skills to actively engage students in the process of learning. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) say again, the
cognitive approach represents a logical method for organizing and interpreting
learner cognitive thinking, rooted in a tradition of subject matter; many
educators are already familiar with its concepts and methods (pp.136-137). Although a constructivism theory is grounded
in developing cognitive skills of students, it is time consuming but has many
benefits that will benefit all students.
In a concise and well planned, structured, directed activities lead
students to discover concepts and develop skills (Cooperstein and Weidinger,
2004, p. 145).
References
Cooperstein, S. E., &
Kocevar-Weidinger, E. (2004). Beyond
active learning: a constructivist
approach to
learning. Reference Services Review, 32(2),
141-148. Retrieved from
Green, S. K., & Gredler, M.
E. (2002). A review and analysis of constructivism for school-
based practice. School
Psychology Review, 31(1), 53.
Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins,
F. P. (2009). Curriculum: Foundations, principles,
and
issues. [Reader
version]. Retrieved from
http://www.coursesmart.com/9780132074117/firstsection#
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